UNIVERSITY/
PENNSYLVANIA.
UBRAR1E5
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT
ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1:
THE ROLE OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES
AIND THE ENVIRONMENT
Judith Alleyne Peters
A THESIS
Historic Preservation
Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCffiNCE
2002
FrankG^Matero
Associate Professor of Architecture
Resyier
John A. Fidler
Head of Building Conservation
& Research
English Heritage
. Chair
Franklj-^atero
Associate Professor of Architecture
f\t^t Aers//v)A / oS I a^^<3 / P Mg^
UNIVERSlPi'
OF
PENNSYLVANIA
LIBRARIES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
When one decides to "retire early" at age fifty from a lucrative business career to
seriously pursue a career in the preservation of significant cultural resources, it can
only be done successfiilly with considerable support from family, friends and mentors.
I have been exceedingly fortunate to have a family that encourages the constant
acquisition of knowledge of the material and cultural world. My father. Dr. Timothy
Peters, and my mother. Dr. Janice Peters, have taught me that there are friends,
opportunities and interesting, challenging projects to be found in every part of life, and
in every part of the globe. It is boring and unfijlfilling to walk only on the
conventional paths.
When I decided to enter a graduate program in conservation at the University of
Pennsylvania, I never realized how totally involved I would become. I wish to
acknowledge my brother, sister and friends that have helped me maintain my life and
responsibilities in Princeton, NJ, while I worked and studied long hours in Philadelphia.
My brother has been particularly helpfiil wdth all physical phases of this research, such as
helping me carry and cut heavy bricks and samples of stucco.
This research has been a joy and I have purposefiilly pushed into areas not absolutely
required for the main theme, so that I could acquire hands-on experience with many
sample handling, characterization and analytical techniques. I would like to express
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
my gratitude to Lindsay Hannah and Dorothy Krotzer for their on-site help in
gathering the numerous samples, and for their insight into deterioration at the site as
they work on the Save America 's Treasures project to stabilize and restore tombs. I
found the classes and labs taught by Frank Matero and Elena Charola particularly
helpful in this research, and also wish to thank Rynta Fourie for her time and advice on
microscopy. Jim Ferris, Bill Romonow and Andrew McGhie at the Laboratory for
Research on Structural Matter were wonderfully giving of their time and expertise in
SEM, XRD and TGA.
Lastly, I wish to acknowledge and express my gratitude to Frank Matero. When I first
posed the idea of coming back to school and entering a new field, he enthusiastically
endorsed the plan. Since I entered the program, he has offered me numerous projects
to expand my knowledge and experience base. I have particularly enjoyed working on
the New Orleans St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 project and look forward to expanding my
involvement in a continuing role next year.
Introduction 4 Hi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS "
FIGURES vii
TABLES x«
LO INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1 - HISTORICAL CONTEXT 5
2.1 New Orleans - A City Develops in Spite of the River 5
2.2 St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 - Development and Change 8
2.3 Tomb Types and Traditional Construction 11
2.4 The Evolution of Restoration Practices 19
3.0 TOMB DECAY MECHANISMS 26
3.1 Development of Hypotheses 26
3.2 Tomb Construction - Form and Function 27
3.3 Construction Materials 32
3.3.1 The Integrated Assembly System 32
3.3.2 Brick 33
3.3.3 Mortar, Stucco, Plaster and Render 39
3.3.4 Surface Finish 48
3.3.5 Additional Components 50
3.4 Environmental Conditions 51
3.4.1 The Environment of New Orleans and the Cemetery Site 51
3.4.2 Biological and Vegetative Growth 54
3.4.3 Other Environmental Issues 56
3.5 Moisture Driven Decay Mechanisms 59
3.5.1 Porosity and Moisture Movement 60
3.5.2 The Evaporative Drying Process 66
3.5.3 Chemical Actions 70
3.5.4 Physical Movement 72
4.0 CURRENT CONDITIONS 75
4.1 Analysis of Current Condition Survey Data 75
4.2 Field Survey Observations 76
5.0 MATERIAL ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION 91
5.1 Sampling Strategies 93
5.1.1 Brick 94
5.1.2 Stucco/ Surface Finish Assembly 95
5.1.3 Mortar 96
5.2 Laboratory Analysis ^^
5.2.1 Visual Inspection and Physical Characterization 96
5.2.2 Moisture Absorption by Total Immersion 101
5.2.3 Additional Tests on Intact Bricks 108
5.2.4 Development of Test Plan for Further Analysis 1 10
5.2.5 Water Vapor Transmission HI
5.2.6 Capillary Absorption 119
5.2.7 Drying Curves and Drying Rates 123
5.2.8 Acid Soluble Analysis & Gravimetric Analysis 127
5.2.9 Calcimetry 138
5.2.10 Presence of Salts 139
5.2.11 Optical Microscopy 142
5.2.12 Polarized Light Microscopy 146
5.2.13 Advanced Instrumental Analysis 151
5.2.14 Scanning Electron Microscopy, EDS 151
5.2.15 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 159
5.2.16 Thermal Gravimetry, Differential Thermal Analysis 165
5.2.17 Laboratory Analysis - Observations and Conclusions 171
6.0 TOMB DECAY MODELS & SCENARIOS 174
6.1 Tomb Decay Mechanisms Confirmed 174
6.1.1 Brick 176
6.1.2 Mortar 177
6.1.3 Stucco 179
6.2 Tomb Combinations Dlustrated 182
6.3 Tomb Decay Scenarios 188
6.3.1 The Well-Maintained Tomb 190
6.3.2 Neglected Surface Finishes 192
6.3.3 Deferred Repairs 194
6.3.4 The Unwelcome "Garden" 196
6.3.5 Incompatible Surface Finishes 198
6.3.6 Incompatible Patches & Repairs 200
6.3.7 The Cement Straight- Jacket 202
7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS 204
7.1 Recommendations for Further Research 204
7.2 Recommendations for Aboveground Cemetery Guidelines 207
8.0 CONCLUSIONS 208
BIBLIOGRAPHY 210
New Orleans History and Cemeteries 210
Technical Bibliography 214
APPENDICES 227
Appendix A - GISMaps of Conditions 228
Appendix B - Sampling Record 236
Appendix C - Experimental Data 267
Appendix D - Summary Results 293
INDEX 303
FIGURES
CHAPTER 2
2. 1 Map of the Louisiana Coast, 1719-20, M, de Serigny,
The Historic New Orleans Collection, 22.1 6
2.2 Norman's Plan of New Orleans Environs, 1845,
Special Collections, Tulane University 7
2.3 Closure tablet. Tomb #251, First visible date of 1826 10
2.4 Aboveground tombs 11
2.5 Early step tombs 13
2.6 Sketches of aboveground tombs by Benjamin Latrobe, from
The Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe 1 799-1820 14
2.7 St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 in 1834, Watercolor sketch by John H.B. Latrobe... 16
2.8 Perpetual Care tomb being rebuiU 22
2.9 Marble tablet repaired with an incompatible epoxy adhesive 23
2.10 Bergamini Tomb #12, one of the pilot restoration tombs 25
CHAPTERS
3.1 Cause-and-effect diagram for tomb decay 26
3.2 Vauh configurations for aboveground tombs 29
3.3 Brickwork showing evidence that tomb was added onto at some time 30
3.4 Muhiple layers of surface finish. 12.5 x magnification 30
3.5 Multiple layers of stucco. 12.5 x magnification 30
3.6 Flooding between the tombs 51
3.7 St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, March 2001 58
3.8 Sources of moisture 59
3.9 Attraction of water molecules to hydrophilic porous materials 61
3.10 4 levels of wetting for hydrophilic porous materials 64
3.11 Capillary Absorption Curve for 548-01 Brick with Stucco 65
3.12 4 levels of drying for hydrophilic porous materials 67
3.13 Drying rate curve shows critical moisture content point 68
3.14 The salt decay mechanism 70
3.15 Brick fractured by cement stucco 71
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Stucco condition mapping through GIS 75
4.2 Adhesion mechanisms include both physical and chemical forces 77
4.3 Example of cracked and peeling modem finish 78
4.4 Delamination and deformation of stucco 80
4.5 Telescoping brick wall 82
4.6 Open mortar joints and evidence of wetness 82
4.7 Tomb #518 Sodiedad Cervantes de B.M., cement cracking 82
4.8 Comparison of damage results. Telescoping vs. structural cracking 83
4.9 Salt induced map cracking on cement layer 84
4.10 Stucco applied over flush mortar joint vs. recessed "key." 85
4.11 Cornice failure 86
4.12 Failed flat roof on platform tomb 87
4.13 Tomb #14, Cracking at stucco to metal interface 88
4.14 Tomb #351, "Before." 90
4.15 Tomb #351, "After." 90
CHAPTERS
5.1 Testing and analysis plan 92
5.2 Hand made brick evidenced by mold "lip"marks 99
5.3 Strike marks on a hand made brick 99
5.4 Sample brick marked for cutting 99
5.5 River and Lake brick distinguished by color and impurities 100
5.6 Samples of stucco during total immersion test 101
5.7 Total saturation point average, minimum and maximum by group 103
5.8 Average open porosity percent by group 103
5.9 Average initial slope of absorption by group 104
5.10 Comparison of the Ms.^t for mortar and stucco of the same tomb 106
5.11 Total immersion test on brick 107
5.12 Capillary rise test on full brick 109
5.13 Thickness to WVT correlation 112
5.14 Stucco sample preparation for WVT test 113
5.15 Brick cubes for WVT test 115
5.16 Daily weight loss% readings, brick 116
5.17 Water vapor transmission resuhs for stucco samples 1 17
5.18 Water vapor transmission resuhs for brick samples 119
5.19 Stucco discs racked in water for capillary absorption test 121
5.20 Sample from Tomb #275 showing saUs formed on cement stucco 121
5.21 Capillary absorption curves 122
5.22 Drying rate curves identifies the critical moisture content point 125
5.23 Drying rate curve for a combination sample, 600-02 Tan-Gray 125
5.24 Weight % averages for fine, coarse and acid soluble fractions 130
5.25 Sample 09-03 mortar. Sieve fraction 1-3. Magnified 5x 131
5.26 Sample 45-03 mortar, Sieve fraction 1-3. Magnified 5x 131
5.27 Mortar type differences - Gravimetric analysis results 131
5.28 Aggregate analysis, % retained, stucco groups and mortar 132
5.29 Aggregate analysis, % passing, stucco groups and mortar 133
5.30 Testing for salt presence with MerckQuant® indicator strips 141
5.31 Tan stucco layer on Tomb #09. 1 2. 5x magnification 144
5.32 Gray stucco layer on Tomb #09. 12. 5x magnification 144
5.33 Tomb #09 mortar at 12. 5x magnification. Brick particles evident 145
5.34 Tomb #09 mortar at 12. 5x magnification. Shell fragment evident 145
5.35 Tomb #600, damage material detected at Tan-Gray stucco interface. 25x. . 145
5.36 Tomb #89, 150-300|jm aggregate, plain polarized light, 25x magnification 148
5.37 Tomb #89, 1 50-300|im aggregate, cross polarized light, 25x magnification 148
5.38 Sample block of stucco fi^om Tomb#09 showing tomb components 149
5.39 Thin section Tomb #09, Tan layer, plain polarized. 12.x magnification 150
5 .40 Thin section Tomb #09, Tan layer, cross polarized. 12.x magnification 150
5.41 Thin section Tomb #09, Gray layer, plain polarized. 12.x magnification 150
5.42 Thin section Tomb #09, Gray layer, cross polarized. 12.x magnification 150
5.43 Stucco samples prepared for SEM testing 153
5.44 Tomb #600, Tan layer. SEM at 250x magnification 154
5.45 Tomb #600, Gray layer. SEM at 250x magnification 155
5.46 Tomb #600, Gray layer. SEMat250x. Acicular crystals in open pore 156
5.47 Tomb #600, Gray layer. SEMatlOOOx. Acicular crystals 156
5.48 Tomb #200, Dark Tan -Gray interface. SEM at lOOx magnification 157
5.49 Tomb #200, Dark Tan -Gray interface. SEM at 250x, Calcite 158
5.50 Tomb#200, Dark Tan -Gray interface. SEM at lOOOx, Calcite 158
5.51 Sample preparation for XRD 161
5.52 XRD sample scans of Tomb #09 Tan and Gray and 1200 White 162
5.53 TGA-DTA scan for lime putty control sample 167
5.54 TGA-DTA scan for Riverton hydrated hydraulic lime control 168
5.55 TGA-DTA scan for Tomb #09-Tan 169
5.56 TGA-DTA scan for Tomb #600-Gray 170
5.57 TGA-DTA scan for Tomb #600-Gray 171
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Tomb #135 174
6.2 Tomb #1200 174
6.3 Tomb #09, platform tomb, first data- 1822, current conditions 183
6.4 Tomb #09, stucco layers 183
6.5 Simple composite system, one stucco layer. Tomb #09 data 184
6.6 Complex composite system, multiple stucco layers. Tomb #09 data 1 84
6.7 Structural crack in Tomb #09 due to cement stucco layer 185
6.8 Back of Tomb #600 covered in cement stucco 186
6.9 Complex composite system, multiple stucco layers. Tomb #600 data 1 86
6.10 Tomb #558 with incompatible patching 187
6. 1 1 Decay mechanism at the edge of an incompatible patch 188
6.12 Tomb #230, Well-maintained example 190
6.13 Scenario: The well-maintained tomb 191
6.14 Neglected surface finishes 192
6.15 Scenario: Neglected surface finishes 193
6.16 Tomb #39, example of deferred repairs 194
6.17 Scenario: Deferred repairs I95
6.18 Bio-film and moss progressed to vegetation 196
6.19 Stucco breached and mortar replaced by moss 196
6.20 Scenario: The unwelcome garden I97
6.21 Thick layers of peeling modem surface finish 198
6.22 Scenario: Incompatible surface finishes I99
6.23 Cement patch pushed off of original stucco 200
6.24 Scenario: Incompatible patches and repairs 201
6.25 The sides of a cement encased tomb breaking up 202
6.26 Cracked cement casing on oldest section of wall vaults 202
6.27 Scenario: The cement straight-jacket 203
All photographs and sketches by Judy Peters (2001-2002) unless otherwise noted
TABLES
1. J.D. Connolly's List of Deterioration Mechanisms Caused by Inadequate
Moisture Control 60
2. Water Vapor Transmission Results for Specific Stucco Samples 118
Tested With and Without Surface Finish
3. Summary Results from Capillary Absorption Test 123
Samples: Stucco without Surface Finish and Bare Brick
4. Summary Results of Drying Rate Test 126
Samples: Stucco without Surface Finish and Bare Brick
5. Gravimetric Analysis - Weight % Results 137
Samples: 30 Stucco (all groups), 20 Mortar
6. Qualitative Analysis for Presence of Soluble Salt 142
7. XRD Resuhs of Stucco Samples 163
8. Summary Data - Sample Categories Response to Moisture 175
9. Total Immersion Tests on Stucco 268
10. Total Immersion Tests on Mortar 272
11. Total Immersion Tests on Brick 273
12. Final Testing Plan 274
13. Stucco Water Vapor Transmission Test Data 275
14. Brick Water Vapor Transmission Test Data 276
15. Stucco Gravimetric Analysis 279
16. Mortar Gravimetric Analysis 280
17. Stucco Capillary Absorption Example Data 281
18. Brick Capillary Absorption Example Data 282
19. Stucco Drying Curve and Drying Rate Example Data 283
20. Brick Drying Curve and Drying Rate Example Data 284
21. Summary: Moisture Response Data for All Groups 294
X
22. Tomb Combinations - All Key Data 295
23. Summary Data for All Stucco Discs 298
24. Summary Data for All Brick Cubes 301
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1:
THE ROLE OF MATEIUAL PROPERTIES
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since 2000, the University of Pennsylvania, through the Graduate School of Fine Arts
Departments of Historic Preservation and Landscape Architecture, has been developing
conservation guidelines and a management plan for St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 in New
Orleans, Louisiana. In March, 2001, a comprehensive site survey ((hereafter called
Survey) of the landscape features and individual tombs was completed. This thesis
combined the total site Survey information on tomb conditions with a literature review
of decay mechanisms and environmental impacts and a laboratory material
characterization of brick, stucco and mortar from specific tombs. Utilizing this
information, deterioration scenarios were developed to explain curtent conditions. The
sketches of these scenarios should be usefiil in educational materials and guidelines for
conservation of aboveground cemeteries.
Owned and managed by the Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, St. Louis Cemetery
No. 1, buih in 1789, is the oldest surviving urban cemetery in New Orleans, Louisiana,
and is of national, as well as local, significance. Among the many reasons for its
importance are the cemetery's unique and early design, its reflection of New Orleans
I Introduction
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
social diversity, and the high quality and integrity of its architecture. It is one of only a
few cemeteries on the National Register, and has also been identified as one of the
country's Save America 's Treasures sites.
The cemetery contains approximately 700 tombs and tomb ruins in small urban-like
precincts. The tombs are owned by individuals, families and societies and most are
aboveground and designed for multiple burials. Although there are a variety of tomb
types and styles, a majority of the inventory consists of primary structures of soft,
handmade, local "river" or "lake" brick and high lime content mortar, covered with
high lime, hydraulic lime or natural cement content stucco. Until the mid-nineteenth
century, the cemetery continued to develop. Tombs were added, smaller tombs were
expanded with new additions, and most structures were kept in good repair. The yearly
tradition of visitations and festivities on All Saints' Day provided an additional social
reminder for family members to maintain the tombs. During this time, it is believed
that the outer stucco covering on the tombs was kept intact and whitewashed, thus
providing protection for the soft brick structure beneath.
By the late nineteenth century, St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 was showing advanced signs
of decay and neglect, as many families had begun interring deceased members in newer
cemeteries, and many of the older families had died out or left New Orleans. Periodic
maintenance campaigns were spurred by concerned preservation groups or by the
2 Introduction
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Archdiocese. From field observations, it appears that the repair/restoration campaigns
that occurred in the early to mid twentieth century involved liberal applications of high
cement content stucco over the historic materials. Evidence also exists that many of
the tombs were coated in modem finishes. These repairs have not held up well, and during
the last decades of the twentieth century, restorations have begun to move in a disturbing
direction. Many of the tombs placed in the "Perpetual Care" program, by families
uninterested in or unable to provide long-term maintenance, have been fiilly or partially
dismantled, the historic fabric discarded, and the structure rebuilt in reinforced concrete.
In this research. Survey condition data of the total site were analyzed and used to
identify candidates for further material analysis. Geographical Information System
(GIS) software was used to map conditions on both a site-wide and tomb specific level
to study trends and patterns. A large sample set of individual materials and tomb
systems was visually classified and generally evaluated for moisture absorption by total
immersion. A selected subset of material samples and total systems was then tested
further for moisture response by capillary absorption, drying rates, percent porosity,
moisture vapor transmission, sah presence and composition. Normal and polarized
light microscopy was used to analyze micro-structure, aggregate sorting, and
composition. Specific stucco binder components were analyzed with Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Thermal Gravimetric
Analysis (TGA).
3 Introduction
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
A review of the available literature on material properties and decay processes, as well
as testing methodology, was instructive in the adaptation of test methods to
characterize such a large base of samples. The objectives in this research focused on
property averages and comparisons to determine overall patterns of performance
characteristics and decay mechanisms. The conclusions drawn and the illustrations of
the decay processes provide guidance for basic conservation recommendations for tombs
in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 . For individual restoration projects, fiirther archival research
and material analysis specific to each tomb, with an analysis of the specific issues of that
tomb, would be advisable.
This characterization of tombs and analysis of building materials has confirmed the
hypothesis that incompatibilities in building materials lead to certain moisture driven
decay patterns. When subjected to the high heat and humidity of New Orleans, the
differing hygroscopic properties of the materials in the system have exacerbated and
accelerated decay mechanisms, resulting in gross cracking and delamination, with
resuhant stucco, mortar and brick loss. Without the periodic maintenance routines that
were in place historically, these deterioration results grew into major structural failures.
The overall condition of the site today is primarily the result of years of neglect and
deferred maintenance and many of the repairs that were made have tended to exacerbate
masonry deterioration caused by the differing properties of the original and repair materials.
4 Introduction
2.0 ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1 - HISTORICAL CONTEXT
2.1 New Orleans - A City Develops in Spite of the River
By the mid-seventeenth century, the French had estabHshed themselves in North
America by claiming and settUng around the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes,
in the region now known as Quebec. They recognized the strategic importance that
control of the waterways provided and sought to secure the mouth of the great
Mississippi River. On April 9, 1682, the land now known as Louisiana was claimed
for France by Robert Cavalier de La Salle and was named Louisiane, for Louis XIV.
By 1 700, there were French soldiers in the region to protect the area from
encroachment by the Spanish, who already had colonies in Florida and had laid claim
to the gulf coast of the North American continent. In 1717, John Law, a Scot, was
given the exclusive charter to sell real estate and develop Louisiana for the French.
Settlers from France and Germany were lured to New Orleans expecting financial
opportunities and a heahhy climate. Instead, most found an early demise in the
mosquito and snake infested bayous.
Most historical commentators remarked on the poor, yet perfect location of the city
founded in 1718 as New Orleans by Jean Baptiste Lemoyne de Bienville, the then
Governor-General of Louisiana. Its history and development have been inextricably
5 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
linked to the Mississippi River, with its large delta of below sea level swamp and
marshland. The city is sited on a great bend in the Mississippi River bounded to the
north, west and south by the river and the east by a large lake. Lake Pontchartrain. It
lies near the mouth of the river, and near enough to bayous that could be navigated, so
that a sheltered, deep-water port could be established.' The strip of land almost a mile
wide along the river's bend was the best and closest area that Bienville encountered
while exploring northward from the mouth of the river It was on relatively high ground
and was considered large enough for a development. Economically and geographically,
this original crescent of land was the perfect site for shipping and control of the
waterways, and the best of many bad sites for building a new city. In spite of the lack of
local building stone and other resources, and the almost yearly yellow fever epidemics
and other plagues, "New Orleans grew rapidly and before the Civil War, was the
^ wealthiest and third
largest city in the United
States."^
Fig. 2.1
Map of the
Louisiana Coast,
1719-20,
hyM. de Serignv.
THNOC22.1
' Donnald McNabb and Lee Madere, A History of New Orleans (New Orleans: Lee Madere. 1997). 3.
* Steia Joseph A. "New Orleans," Pencil Points v. 19 (1938 April): 197.
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
wamMMStB rxjkx
fUfr^h. C**^A 0(V/^ J, .r^-mftV •*<«.•- *»A«vT-X-tt«yi- /U I/A»ni7 \'^ Ori^m ,i /SIS. J^^^thr ,i^
Fig. 2.2 Norman 's Plan of New Orleans Environs, 1845.
Special Collections, Tulane Univeristy.
The history of New Orleans under the French, the Spanish, the French again, and
finally, as part of the Louisiana Purchase, becoming a part of the United States of
America, is rich and fascinating, and far beyond the scope of this thesis.^ The
environment and the city's constant battle with water, the mix of French, Spanish and
American cultures, the Creole society, the large influxes of immigrants, the almost
yearly yellow fever or plague epidemics, the city's pattern of growth, the unique
development of laws, and, of course the architecture, have all impacted the
' The New Orleans History section of the Bibliography contains manv excellent sources for the stud}' of
the history and architecture of New Orleans and the aboveground cemeteries.
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
development of the cemeteries. New Orieans history, geography and culture have also
influenced building materials of choice and attitudes towards cemetery maintenance
and preservation, and will be important elements to understand in the development of
plans to arrest the current levels of decay and initiate long-term plans for maintenance
and protection of this important cultural landscape.
2.2 St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 - Development and Change
For the early years of settlement, it has been assumed by many authors that burials
occurred in the high ground of the riverbank, although this fact has never been verified
archaeologically or through archival records. During high rainy seasons, this land
flooded and remains would have been disturbed. In a 1721 plan for the city, Royal
Military Engineer Adrian DePauger included an area for a cemetery outside of the city
limits, where St. Peter Street is today. This low, swampy site was surrounded by
ditches in an attempt to drain excess water, and burials were made below ground.
Prominent citizens were not buried in the watery graves in St. Peter Cemetery, as they
could command space within the parish church of St. Louis, as was the custom in
Europe. The burial space in the Church quickly neared its maximum capacity, and in
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
1784, the Spanish Cabildo, fearing disease from over burial, prohibited interment in the
church of all but the most distinguished inhabitants of the colony."*
In 1788, New Orleans lost many citizens to an epidemic and a great fire. The St. Peter
Cemetery was over-filled and there was a growing belief that interring the dead among
the living contributed to outbreaks of disease. The Cabildo ordered a new cemetery to
be established outside the city limits. St. Louis Cemetery, now called St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1, was established to the north of the city, outside the ramparts in the
area now bound by Basin, Conti, Treme and St. Louis streets. The 300 foot square
space was considered temporary until oflficially approved on August 14, 1789, when a
royal decree was issued in which "His Majesty was pleased to approve the construction
of the new cemetery."^
After disastrous fires in both 1788 and 1794, the Spanish Cabildo passed building laws
that forbade the construction of wooden buildings within the center of the city,
"requiring walls to be of brick or of brick between posts protected by at least an inch of
cement plaster."^ New Orleans became a city of brick buildings and these building
practices also became the norm for tomb and cemetery wall construction. "After 1 803
the rapid increase in population, together with the inroads made by yellow fever and
^ Mary Louise Christovich. ed.. New Orleans Architecture, Vol. Ill The Cemeteries (Gretna: Pelican
Publishing. 1974). 4.
^ Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo. Oct. 17 1788. t>pescript WPA. 1936.
* Samuel Wilson, Jr., "The Architecture of New Orleans." .^Z-l Journal (August 1959): 32-35.
9 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
cholera, created a real municipal problem. . . Rigid regulations regarding methods of
burial were issued. Interment in the ground was forbidden, and brick tombs were
required in all cemeteries which were enclosed within high brick walls."^ It was at this
time that burials within the church were also abolished.^
Although interments continued at St. Peter Cemetery until it was closed in 1800, St.
Louis Cemetery No. 1 was the primary location for all burials in the city until the
consecration of St. Louis Cemetery No. 2 in 1823.^ The growth of the city and the
high death toll from yellow fever made more burial space necessary. There are still
many tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 that have dates after 1823, such as the one seen
in Figure 2.3, as family plots were built, added onto or tombs rebuilt throughout the
nineteenth century. New building activity slowed dramatically by the late nineteenth
century, as there were a number of more fashionable cemeteries throughout the city,
and many of the tombs at St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1 fell into ruin.
Fig. 2.3
Closure Tablet
Tomb #251,
r' visible date
is 1826.
Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration for the City of New Orleans, New
Orleans City Guide (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1938). 186.
* Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo. December 28. 1803. typescript WPA. 1936.
' Christovich. 6.
JO
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
2.3 Tomb Types and Traditional Construction
St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 is described as an aboveground cemetery, although there
exist below ground burials there, as there
were at St. Peter Cemetery. According to
Louisiana historian Eric J. Brock,
the tradition of above ground
interments is more cultural than
practical (though certainly the
practicality of the method in New
Orleans' particular environment
played a role in its adoption.)
Above ground interment is
common throughout the Latin
world and, indeed, is more the rule
there than the exception.**'
Fig. 2.4 Aboveground tombs.
Sharyn Thomson described low individual tombs of brick, common in late eighteenth, early
nineteenth century cemeteries throughout the coastal American south and the West Indies,
that appear similar to the low step and platform tombs at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 ."
By studying archival records with recent survey resuhs and data on the first evident
interment date, one can see a progression in the construction of tomb types and in their
"^ Eric J. Brock, Images of America: New Orleans Cemeteries (Charleston: Arcadia Press, 1999), 7.
' ' Sharyn Thompson, "These Works of Mortuary Art: The Aboveground Tombs of St. Michael
Cemetery, Pensacola, Florida." Southern Quarterly 31 (2) (Winter 1993): 50-73.
11
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
later renovations and additions. The March, 2001, Survey of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1
by The University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Fine Arts Collaborative Studio,
identified the major tomb types. '^
Wall Vault: Multiple tiers of individual burial vaults, usually of brick vault
construction, arranged to form an isolated block, usually serving as a
perimeter enclosure wall.
Pediment Tomb: A multiple vault tomb with a height greater than either its
width or length and surmounted by a pediment, (Pediment: the flat,
triangular or curved gable end of the roof surmounting the end walls.)
These are usually family tombs.
Simple Tomb: This tomb type has multiple variations that will be referred
to as the sub-types. A simple tomb is a small mortuary structure, that
contains one or more burial vaults within solid walls and whose length is ^eater
than its width or height. There are several classifications of simple tombs:
• Platform tomb: A simple tomb whose base is solid or open on piers
or columns.
• Parapet tomb: A simple tomb possessing a raised fi-ont creating a
parapet (a low wall surmounting the structure's exterior walls or at a
roofs perimeter), with or without embellishment.
• Sarcophagus tomb: A simple tomb resembling a sarcophagus,
typically with canted sides and usually on a raised base.
• Step tomb: A simple tomb possessing a stepped or corbelled top.
When New Yorker John Pintard visited the cemetery in 1801, he described a landscape
very different from the image of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 today. The graves were not
marked and the tall pediment aboveground tombs common today were not remarked as
- The Collaborauve Studio was developed in 2000 in conjunction with Save our Cemeteries Inc and
the Roman Catholic Church of the Archdiocese of New Orleans by the University of Pennsylvania's
Graduate School of Fine Arts Departments of Historic Preservation and Landscape Architecture with
Tulane University's School of Architecture/Preservation Studies. Funding was made available by the
Louisiana Division of Historic Preservatioa Office of Cultural Development and Tourism. They also
pro\ided further funding Phase 2 archival research, map and database w ork. and for the development of
Preservation Guidelines.
12 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
dominant. There still remain several good examples in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 of the
low step tombs that Pintard described, such as the two seen in Figure 2.5. He commented:
Over some few, brick arches were turned. At the head of every grave
was planted an Iron or wooden cross some of the Iron ones were
indented with the names of the lifeless tenants below. '^
Cemeteries have developed around
two models. The rural cemetery, or
Elysian Field, is viewed as a garden of
graves. In fact, one definition of
"cemetery" is "place of sleep." The
Necropolis, or city of the dead model
Fig. 2.5. Early Step Tombs. as that found at St. Louis Cemetery
No. 1, is predominantly architectural. This is not the model most Americans found
familiar or comfortable. As Senator Hoar expressed when first viewing the heavy
monuments Benjamin Latrobe designed for the Congressional Cemetery, "the thought
of being buried beneath one . . . added new terror to death.""*
Most of the travel journals that reference New Orleans were written by visitors fi-om
the Northeast, where church graveyards were the norm and where the rural cemeteries first
David Lee Sterling. "New Orleans. 1801: An Account bv John Pintard." Louisiana Historical
Quarterly Vol 34 no 3 (July 1951): 230. John Pintard wrote a series of articles published in the Dailv
Advertiser from April 15 to May 22. 1802. while an editor of that paper in New York City The original
manuscript is held by the New York Historical Society.
Edward F. Bergman. HoodlaMn Remembers: Cemetery of. American Historv (Utica NY- North
Country Books. 1988). 2
13
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
developed in the 1830s. They were most comfortable with the rural cemetery, or Elysian
Field model, a garden of monuments. When confronted with the Necropolis, or city of the
dead model, they commented with fascination, puzzlement and sometime, revulsion.
In 1818, Benjamin Latrobe described a cemetery that contained stucco covered brick
platform, and possibly pediment tombs, as well as wall vaults. He sketched 4 platform
tombs in his journal, and a wall vault in two sections, one with 7 bays and one with 9 bays,
each 3 tiers high.
The Catholic tombs are of a very different Character from those of our
Eastern and Northern cities. They are of bricks, much larger than
necessary to enclose a single coffin, and plaistered [sic] over, so as to
have a very solid and permanent appearance. They are of these and
many other Shapes of similar
character covering each an
area of 7 or 8 feet long and 4
or 5 feet wide, and being from
5 to 7 feet high. '^
In one comer of the Catholic
burying grounds are two sets
of Catacombs of three stories
each . . . Many of the Catacombs
were occupied, but not in
regular succession and the
mouths of some were filled with
Marble Slabs having
inscriptions. But more were
Fig. 2. 6 Benjamin Latrobe 's sketches of the
aboveground platform tombs. He also made 2
sketches of the wall vaults. From the Benjamin
Latrobe Journals.
Benjamin Latrobe, March 8* 1819. This quote can be found in publications of the Latrobe's
Journals. From Samuel Wilson, Jr. ed.. Impressions Respecting New Orleans by Benjamin Henry
Bonex'al Latrobe: Diary & Sketches 1818-1820. (New York: Columbia Universit>- Press, 1951), 82;and
Edward C. Carter IL John C. Van Home, and Lee W. FormwalL eds. Samuel Wilson, Jr. Consulting Ed.
The Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe 1 799-1820 From Philadelphia to New Orleans. (New Haven:
Yale University Press for The Maryland Historical Society, 1980), 241.
14
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
bricked up and plaistered [sic] without any indication of the person's name
who occupied it/^
Timothy Flint, a protestant missionary from New England, spent 10 years traveling
throughout the Mississippi valley. He was conflicted concerning his assessment of the
"morals" of the people of New Orleans, as he found so many contrasting practices of
what he felt was good and evil, but found the cemetery impressive. In 1822 he wrote:
The old Catholic cemetery is completely covered either with graves or
monuments. The monuments are uniformly either of white marble, or
plaister, or painted white, and by the brilliant moonlight evenings of this
mild climate, this city of the dead, or as the more appropriate phrase of
the Jews is, of the living, makes an impressive appearance.'^
Benjamin Latrobe's youngest son, John H. B. Latrobe painted a more colorful view
that gives us the first clear image of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 in 1834. The pyramidal
Vamey tomb is prominent, and there are step and platform tombs illustrated in earth
colored stuccos. Multiple burial tombs, open space, wall vauUs, and ships in the canal
beyond are documented:
We went to the Catholic burying ground. The tombs here are peculiar
to the place. No grave could be dug of the usual depth without coming
to water, and to obviate this difficulty in the sepulcher of the dead, the
coffin is laid upon the surface of the ground, and a strong structure of
brick buih around it. This is then plastered and whitewashed.'^
'* Ibid, Wilson, 83. Carter. 242.
' Timothy Flint, Recollections of the last ten years, passed in occasional residences and joumeyings
in the vallev of the Mississippi. (1826 reprint. New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.. 1968). 225.
18
Samuel Wilson, Jr. and Leonard V. Huber, The St. Louis Cemeteries of New Orleans (New Orleans:
St. Louis Cathedral, 1963). 5. quoted from John E. Semmes. John H. B. Latrobe and His Times - 1803-
1891 (Baltimore. 1917).
15 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 2. 7 St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 in 1834, Watercolor sketch by John H.B. Latrobe.
Image reproduced from cover art on The St. Louis Cemeteries of New Orleans, October,
1998, published by St Louis Cathedral. The original artM'ork was owned Mrs. Ferdinand
Claiborne Latrobe, II, of Baltimore.
Cyril Thornton, writing in 1834 in Men and Manners found the whole idea of a watery
grave very repugnant during his visit to the cemetery. The lurking pools of water and
visible crayfish must have made more of an impression on him than did the
aboveground tombs, as his comments reflect:
One acquires from habit a sort of lurking prejudice in favour of being
buried in dry ground, which is called into full action by a sight of this
New Orleans cemetery. The space cannot penetrate even a few inches
below the surface, without finding water, and considerable difficulty is
experienced in sinking the coffins, since the whole neighbourhood could
not furnish a stone the size of an orange.'^
' ' Cyril Thorntoa Men and Manners in America. 2"^ ed %'ol. II (Edinburgh; William Blackwood 1834). 2 15.
16
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
By the travel accounts of Ingraham (1835), Didimus (1845), and Lady Emmeline
Stuart Wortley (1848-50) and Fredrika Bremer (1855), the beauty of the aboveground
tombs of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 and 2 were better appreciated and the concern of
inground watery graves ceased to be mentioned.^" It is during this time that the well-
read traveler became aware of cemetery advances in Paris at Pere Lachaise, established
in 1 804, and the rural cemeteries such as Mt. Auburn (183 1) in Massachusetts or
Greenwood (1835) in Brooklyn, NY. It is also by the mid 1830s that the marble clad
tombs designed by French emigre Jacques Nicolas Bussiere dePouilly were commissioned
by prominent families for tombs in St. Louis Cemeteries No. 1 and 2 turning St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1 and especially No. 2 into a more monumental park.^'
In 1875, Mark Twain summed up the unique situation of New Orleans' architectural
necropolis:
There is no architecture in New Orleans, except in the cemeteries" and
went on to describe the cemetery and the well-maintained nature of the
individual tombs. . They bury their dead in vaults above ground.
These vaults have a resemblance to houses - - sometimes to temples; are
buih of marble, generally; are architecturally graceful and shapely; they
face the walks and driveways of the cemetery; and when one moves
through the midst of a thousand or so of them, and sees their white roofs
and gables stretching into the distance on every hand, the phrase 'city of
the dead' has all at once a meaning to him. Many of the cemeteries are
- Joseph Holt Ingraham. The South - West By a Yankee, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers 1835)
145.154-55; H. Didimus. New Orleans As I Found It (New York: Harper & Brothers. 1845) Lady
Emmelme Stuart Wortley. Trax'els in the United States etc. During 1848 and 1850 (New York Harper
& Brothers. Publishers. 1851). 126; Fredrika Bremer. The Homes of the New World: Impressions of
America, trans. Mary Howett (New York: Harper and Brothers. 1854). 214.
- Massoa Ann M. "Pere La Chaise and New Orleans Cemeteries." The Southern Quarterly A Journal
of the Arts in the South 3 1 . no. 2 (Winter 1 993 ) 82-97.
^7 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
beautiful and kept in perfect order . . . if those people down there would live
as neatly while they were alive as they do after they are dead, they would
find many advantages to it.^^
In the mid 1870s, George Fran9ois Mugnier photographed St. Louis Cemetery No. 1,
leaving us many images of the cemetery tombscapes while it was still an active
cemetery. The Society tombs that now dominate the view of the western section of St.
Louis Cemetery No. 1 had already been built. Most family tombs seen in the Mugnier
views are pediment tombs or large platform and parapet tombs with multiple vaults.
By this time, many of the early single vault platform tombs had been "made-over" to
accommodate multiple vault family burials. These "addition" tombs can be identified by
changes in brick coursing or stucco, or tell-tale construction lines and odd placement of
original tablets.
By the late 1870s, the images of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 were defined by the large
society tombs, such as those sketched by A. R. Waud, and published in 1867 by
Harpers Weekly and by the photography of Mugnier. In 1879, a reporter for Times
Picayune wrote about All Saints' Day, during which families and society members
repaired, cleaned, whitewashed and decorated the tombs.
The cemetery on Basin and St. Louis Streets [No. 1] witnessed a large
concourse of people . . . Here the tomb of the Lusitanos Portuguese
Benevolent Association is situated. It was draped in mourning and
surmounted by various Portuguese flags. The Italian Benevolent
Society's fine tomb was decorated with flags and draped in black. The
Louis M. Hacker, ed. Mark Twain, Life on the Mississippi. (New York: Sagamore Press. Inc.. 1957), 223.
IS Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Societe Fran^aise, Orleans Artillery, Catalan Society, Sieurs Bien
Aimee and other societies bedecked their tombs in becoming manner."
2.4 The Evolution of Restoration Practices
By the end of the nineteenth century, St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 had fallen out of favor
as New Orleans residents moved out to the more fashionable cemeteries of Lafayette
and Metairie. As interment activity fell, so did visitation and family maintenance
activities. Grace King, the noted New Orleans historian, wrote in 1895 of a cemetery
that was no longer open to visitors:
The crumbling bricks of the first resting-places built there are still to be
seen, draped over with a wild growth of vine, which on sunshiny days
are alive with scampering, flashing, green and gold lizards. It opens its
gates only at the knock of an heir, so to speak; gives harbourage only to
those who can claim a resting place by the side of an ancestor.^'*
Lafcadio Hearn was less flattering when he wrote of his city's earliest
cemeteries. His harsh words were not for the manner of burial, but for what the
lack of care and maintenance had caused in the cemetery:
They are hideous Golgothas, these old intramural cemeteries of ours.
... The tombs are fissured, or have caved in, or have crumbled down
into shapeless masses of bricks and mortar, the plaster falling away,
betrays the hollow mockery of the frail monuments. ^^
^ New Orleans Times Picayune. November 1, 1879.
^^ Grace King, New Orleans: The Place and The People (New York: Macmillan and Co., 1895), 401.
"'' Lafcadio Heam Creole Sketches. Charles Woodward Hutson. ed. (Houghton MiflQin Company;
Boston and New York, 1924), 137. This publication reprinted work by Heam written in 1885.
19 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
In the 1885 Historical Sketch Book and Guide to New Orleans and Environs, the
authors described St. Louis 1 Cemetery and its condition:
... the older cemeteries, such as the St. Louis, . . . were once the outskirts of
the town, are now in the heart of the populous parts of the city, and every
consideration of public sanitation demands that they be closed against
further interments. ... In this cemetery many of the oldest tombs are so
dilapidated that they cannot be identified and some are missing
altogether. ■^^
In 1900, it was stated in the Standard History of New Orleans: "Many of the tombs are
empty and falling to pieces, the tablets gone, or so worn by winter's storms and
summer's heats that the inscriptions are no longer legible."^^
In 1923, in response to these conditions, Grace King and other concerned citizens
formed the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Tombs. The 1 50 members,
undertook a research project to determine the location and condition of tombs of
greatest historical significance, and started efforts to have them restored. '^^ During the
WPA (Works Progress Administration) projects of the 1930s, the documentation
research was extended and inscriptions for most of the tombs were documented for
each New Orleans cemetery. The card files of this research are now archived at the
New Orleans Public Library.
^* Historical Sketch Book and Guide to New Orleans and Environs, With Map (New York: Will H.
Coleman. 1885). 223, 225.
"' A.G. Dumo. "Old Burial Places," Standard History of New Orleans, Heniy Rightor ed. (Chicago:
Lewis Publishing Co, 1900), 257.
^* Christovich. introduction by Samuel Wilson, Jr., ix.
20 Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
It is clear that the interest generated by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient
Tombs and the new information provided by the WPA project created momentum for
tomb repair and maimenance. There are many early tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No.
1 with original brick walls and cornice details, now patched or completely recoated in
modern cement stucco. Many of these repairs may have occurred during the
emhusiasm generated by the work of King's group and the new cemetery information
published by the WPA, in a time before the developmem of professional conservation
practices.
In 1948, Joseph S. Carey wrote the Saint Louis Cemetery Number One Souvenir
Booklet which comains photographs of the cemetery and a self-guided walking tour of
famous tombs and residents.^^ By this time, the cemetery's condition had been
improved enough to invite the public back in for visits. In the later publications of The
St. Louis Cemeteries of New Orleans by Samuel Wilson, Jr. and Leonard V. Huber in
1963, 1988 and 2001, this original list of highlighted tombs is repeated v^th very little
new research added.'" During the 1970s and early 1980s, several large restoration
projects were completed by the Archdiocese and bronze plaques were added to many
of the tombs highlighted in Carey's booklet.
- Joseph S. Carey. Saint Louis Cemetery Number One. Som'enir Booklet (New Orleans- St Louis
LathediaL 1948).
''Samuel WUson. Jr. and Leonard V. Huber. The St. Louis Cemeteries of New Orleans (New Orleans"
St. Louis Cathedral, 1963 and 1988). ^^"
^^ Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
In 1974, Mary Louise Christovich, New Orleans author and historian, founded Save
Our Cemeteries, Inc. (SOC) in an effort to increase awareness of the restoration needs
of the city's cemeteries and to build support to stop the nine city-block demolition of
the condemned wall vaults of St. Louis Cemetery No. 2 by the Archdiocese. That same
year, the Friends of the CabUdo and LA State Museum published a cemeteries volume of the
New Orleans Architecture Series (Vol. m), hoping to "focus attention and inspire positive
action for the protection and preservation of what remains of this priceless historical and
architectural heritage. "^^
Since that time, sporadic conservation
projects by families, the Archdiocese and
cemetery preservation groups have been
completed at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 .
The Archdiocese has encouraged tomb
owners to place their tombs under the
Perpetual Care program which ensures
that the tomb will be maintained long after
the final interment. While this program
could be beneficial toward the
preservation of these historic tombs, the
Fig. 2.8 Tomb #475, .A Perpetual Care tomb
being rebuilt, replacing the original historic
materials.
Christovich. introduction by Samuel Wilsoa Jr. .\ of Forward.
22
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
actual results had quite the opposite effect. Tombs placed under Perpetual Care have
been completely or partially dismantled and a new tomb or roof of reinforced concrete,
painted bright white, has been erected in its place. Often, only the original marble tablet
is preserved, to be inset into the side of the concrete tomb while a gray granite tablet is
placed in the vault opening. These new
tombs bear very little resemblance to the
historic tombs that remain in the cemetery,
and are quite visually jarring to the overall
appearance of the cultural landscape that
the cemetery has become. ^^
Also distracting are tomb restorations by ^'^ -^ Marble tablet repaired with an
incompatible epoxy adhesive.
families and tomb restoration groups, who
are not well informed on appropriate conservation practices, such as advocated by the
Secretary of the Interior Standards for Historic Preservation, or specific guidelines for
cemetery preservation published by the State of Louisiana."
During the 1981 survey, there were 7 Perpetual Care tombs noted. By the 2001 sunev. the number
had grown to 57. There were 10 additional tombs without a Perpetual Care plaque that were marked
with a special informational plaque as "Restored by the Archdiocese."
" Kay D. Weeks and Anne E. Grimmer, The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of
Histonc Properties with GuideUnes for Preserving. Rehabilitating. Restoring & Reconstructing Historic
Bmldmgs. Washington. DC: National Park Service. 1995; Frank G. Matero. Cemeterv Presen'ation
The Restoration of Above Ground Masonry Tombs, New Orleans. LA: Louisiana Division of Historic
Preservation. Save Our Cemeteries. Inc.. 1989.
23
Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
In spite of these issues, the current situation at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 is
encouraging. Through funding and support by the Louisiana Division of Historic
Preservation, Office of Cultural Development and Tourism, Save Our Cemeteries, Inc.
and the Archdiocese of New Orleans, the results of the Survey, the restoration of three
pilot tombs and the second phase of research on history, tomb construction and
material properties have been completed and incorporated into new guidelines for the
site. The Archdiocese, as owner and manager of the site, is actively involved with the
preservation planning process. Tomb restoration funding has been made available with
a grant from Save America 's Treasures and a project team is working to stabilize
emergency tomb conditions and complete a full tombscape conservation project on
Alley 9-L, in the northwest comer of the site. It is hoped that the information and
scenarios of decay developed in this research can provide meaningful assistance to tomb
owners and people in cemetery management, as well as the many enthusiastic
volunteers willing to provide donations and physical labor towards fiiture tomb
conservation and restoration.
2-t Historical Context
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YAT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 2.10 Bergamini Tomb #12,
One of the SOC pilot restoration tombs.
Photograph by Studio, March 2001.
25
Historical Context
3.0 TOMB DECAY MECHANISMS
3.1 Development of Hypotheses
This research was initiated to investigate how known decay mechanisms have impacted
the tombs at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, given how the structures were originally
designed to function and endure. The tomb designs and original materials of
construction, primarily local brick protected by lime and hydraulic stuccos, were
selected empirically by generations of New Orleans craftspeople. Over time,
alterations have been made to many of the tombs, and both structural and material
changes have been considered in this research, although the hypotheses formed assumed
that mismatches in
material properties and the
local hot, humid wet
environment would be the
most important factors.
Tools rMachine)
Construction (Method)
Mason's Tools
Tomb Type
Tools for Marble
Compressive
Stress
Cleaning Tools
Tensile Stress
Groimds Tools
Shear Stress
Conservator's Tools
Later Additions
Bunal Impacts
Roof Weigh
\
Tomb
Decay
Temperature /
Local N4anagement
Bnck, Mortar Properties
Humidity /
RamfeU /
Stucco Properties
Material Incompatibility-
Volunteer Restoration
Wind
Lost Traditions
Moisture Response
Soil Type
Grounds Mamtenance
Strength. Flexibility
Supported Organisms
Vandalism
Porosity
Vegetation
Tourism
Impuntiea
Salts m Soils
Local Oaftspeople
Material Composition
Subsidence
Conservators
Thermal, Hygnc Movement
Ground Water
Lack of Maintenance
Composite System
Environment
Uixman A&encv
Vlate rials
Fig. 3. 1 Cause-and-effect diagram for tomb decay.
A cause-and-effect
diagram, as a visually
oriented problem solving
tool, highlights the major
26
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
categories where problems occur in any situation where variation or deterioration is
active. The historical context and technical literature review uncovered many of the
potential causes under the categories of people, tools and techniques. The laboratory
analyses focused on materials and environment.
In the development of the hypotheses, tomb construction, the specific properties of the
materials of construction, and environmental impacts were considered. This consisted
of a review of tomb structure, form and function, historic information and performance
property issues with each primary building material, as well as the specific New
Orleans' environmental factors contributing to decay. With that information as
background, decay mechanisms were evaluated for their potential as the primary
drivers to surface and structural degradation at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1
3.2 Tomb Construction - Form and Function
The major purposes of the structural systems of the building, and in this case, a tomb,
are to protect the interior contents fi-om exterior forces. A pooriy designed structure
will not last long enough to serve the multi-generational burial needs and the tombs at
St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 have actually performed well over time in their function to
These "Fishbone" cause-and-effect diagrams are often used to solve problems in manufacturing
systems or service processes, but can also be useful when diagnosing conservation issues. They were
popularized in the U.S. by Dr. Kaora Ishikawa. a Japanese quaht> control expert. The five kev areas in which
aU sources of variation can be found are maa machine (tools), method (technique, procedure)', material and
emironment. These fi\ e categories are often renamed to better fit the specific process or problem
2 7 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
protect the interred. Deterioration has occurred primarily due to the structure's
lessening ability to minimize mechanical stresses, because of the gradual
disintegration, or replacement, of what were once adequate and properly erected
structural systems. ^^ Once deformations began to occur, the crystalline nature of the
building materials reacted to deformation stress by cracking on the microscopic and
macroscopic levels.
The majority of the tombs in St. Lx)uis Cemetery No. 1 are simple constructions of
stucco covered brick. With the exception of the step tombs, most of the tombs are
meant to contain one or more aboveground interments, each in an individual vauh.
According to a city ordinance, after at least one year and one day, a vault can be
reopened, the casket burned or discarded and the decomposed remains can be
transferred to the lowest caveau level, or pushed to the back of the vault, if the family
requires space for another interment. ^^
For illustration purposes, each level or tier of vaults can be considered a floor and the
caveau, if it exists, can be thought of as the basement. Tombs can be structurally
described, as would an architectural building, by the number of floors (tiers) and bays
over a basement (caveau) level and covered by a roof of a specific style. The openings
in the tomb are created by the vault openings, which are sealed by loose brick and
Samuel Y. Harris, Building Pathology (New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2001). 58.
Interview with Michael Boudreaiix. Director. Archdiocesan Cemeteries of New Orieans on March 13. 2001.
28 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
mortar and covered by a closure tablet made historically of marble. The modem tablets
are often of granite.
^\
____^
1 1
1 1
u u
1 1
1 i
Tier 2
Tien
1 1 1
1
Tiers
2 3
Bays
4
Fig. 3.2 Vault configurations for aboveground tombs.
Sketches from the Sun'ey Manual.
In the simplest low step tomb, the brickwork generally follows the form of the casket
over which it was buih, and these tombs were not meant to be reused.^' However, for
the majority of the multi-vault tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, the structural system
consisted of load bearing brick masonry walls, generally at least 2 wythes wide, with
stepped brickwork or arches forming each vauU. The brickwork was laid in various
bonds, but generally the exterior wythe was an American bond with several (4-6)
courses of stretchers before a header course was laid. In many of the tombs, a stone
slab was placed over the vauh to provide a supportive floor to the next vault or to the
roof Most of the tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 did not have a separate stone
foundation, ahhough many had a thicker brick base composed of an extra wythe of
brick for 2 or more courses. In tombs that have had later additions, the upper addition
Of the 1 7 low step tombs suneyed. only 1 had a tablet hsting more than one interment.
29
Tomb Decav Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
may be slightly smaller than the original tomb, with the original tomb creating an
apparent wider base.
Fig. 3.3 Apparently, this
pediment tomb was built
over an earlier .step or
platform tomb. Note the
different bricks used for
each different period of
construction.
Depending on the tomb style, non-structural brickwork was used to form a pediment or
a high parapet over the vault openings to create an impressive tomb entrance. Intricate
profile cornices were often formed around this brickwork with stucco. All local
brickwork was protected by stucco and most tombs were originally limewashed in
white or earth colors. Multiple layers of both stucco and surface finish can be seen on
many of the tombs representing
generations of choice in both
color and materials.
•>■>■■• '^^^..
0-\
Fig. 3.4 Tomb # 267 Multiple layers
of finish, 1 2.5 X magnification.
Fig. 3.5 Tomb # 600, Multiple
stucco layers. Original "Tan " lime
stucco on bottom. More recent
"Gray " cementitious stucco on top.
12.5 X magnification.
30
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
The wall and roof closure systems, and all additional structural elements added to keep
openings and cavities from compromising the purpose of the structure, worked together
to minimize distortion and protect the interior contents. The walls, acting as the
vertical closure system, provided barrier protection from corrosive and deteriorative
elements, and served to carry the roof The stucco layers of the wall protected and
ensured the structural integrity of the brick super-structure, while the brick masonry
provided protection for the interior space. As designed, in an unbroken layer, the
stucco served its function well by keeping water, windblown seeds and biological
growth away from the interior brick and mortar. However, when not maintained,
cracks that developed in the stucco could channel water into the structure, where it
would cause serious structural degradation.
The roof closure system served to collect and divert water away from the tomb, and
provided structural stabilization to the tops of the walls. The components of this
system included the roof and any additional site or design elements that affected the
water drainage ability of the tomb. The most critical function of the tomb roof was to
keep falling or wind-driven water out of the interior structural brickwork. If the roof
system was breached by any small crack, water could enter and many of the decay
processes would be initiated. Once the roof failed, deterioration of the tomb structure
was rapid.
^ I Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
In an architectural structure, one would normally design openings and cavities for
ventilation and human comfort. In the St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 tombs, there were no
"live" inhabitants, and the openings were rarely unsealed. The openings are part of the
arched or trabeated vauh and the weight of the structure is completely supported by the
brick walls and the arch or slab. The opening was sealed with odd bricks and mortar,
and usually stuccoed over and then faced with a closure tablet of marble or other stone.
The opening did not compromise the structure, and while sealed, the closure tablet
system over the mortared opening was effective in protecting the interior of the tomb
from water intrusion. Even where tablets were loose or cracked, the vertical nature of
the tablet was still effective as a closure system. Based on numerous visits to this site,
it was apparent that the social and cultural taboos of an open tomb are such that these
openings were not allowed to stay unsealed long because of decay and deterioration,
even though the rest of the tomb structure may be completely compromised. Tombs that
become opened through vandalism are closed by the Archdiocesan Cemeteries' staff.
3.3 Construction Materials
3.3.1 The Integrated Assembly System
The tombs at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 are composite systems made up of disparate
construction materials, each with its own distinct properties. According to Binda and
32 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Anzani, "Modeling a masonry stnicture is a difficult task, since masonry does not
apparently respect any hypothesis assumed for other materials (isotropy, elastic
behavior, homogeneity). . masonry must be viewed as a composite. Its mechanical
properties are derived from the properties of the components''^^ To begin to understand
the system, the individual material properties were studied, then interactions at the
interfaces were considered based on the individual decay mechanisms.
3.3.2 Brick
The American Society for Testing Materials and Materials defines brick as "a solid
masonry unit of clay or shale, usually formed into a rectangular prism while plastic and
burned or fired in a kiln. Brick is a ceramic product."^^ Historically, brick have long
been manufactured locally in America, as the raw materials of clay and sand can be
found everywhere.'^ Solid brick was the traditional structural masonry building
material in New Orieans, as there was no local stone. Buildings seen in the earliest
drawings show construction in wood, before brick was available locally. Stone or brick
were not available in the lower Mississippi valley and along the Gulf Coast. As a result, a
mixture of mud and moss called boiisillage, and soft bricks or tabby, [the latter] a mixture of
^* "ASTM C43," 1998 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.05 (W. Conshohocken, PA ASTM.
1998). 28.
^' Ward Bucher. ed. Dictionary of Building Preservation. (New York: John Wiley & Sons. Inc.. 1 9%). 65.
Harley J. McKee. Introduction to Early American Masonrv, Stone, Brick, Mortar and Plaster
(Washington DC: National Trust for Historic Preservatioa 1973). 41.
^^ Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
ground sea shell and water, were substituted."" In 1727, Marie Madeleine Hachard, a young
Ursuline sister wrote of New Orleans:
. . . very pretty, well constructed and regularly built ... the houses are
very well built of colombage et mortier. . . . The colonists substituted
locally made soft brick for the stone and added clay mixed with Spanish
moss as insulation - an idea borrowed from the Indians."*^
Historical references differ slightly on the establishment of the first brickyard on
Bayou St. John. According to Wilson, De Morand, acting Engineer of the City in
1726, had established the first brick yard in New Orleans in 1725, and eventually
acquired its ownership.^^ According to Cizek, "The Company of the Indies opened the
city's first brickyard in 1725, on Bayou Road.'"*^ In another reference, taken from the
Mississippi Provincial Archives, "The first brickyard was established outside New
Orleans on Bayou St. John in September, 1726, employing several white artisans and
fourteen black workers. During its first twenty-five months of operation, the yard
produced 400,000 bricks.""*^ "About 1727, a second brickyard was established by the
Jesuits outside New Orleans.'"*^
" Fred Daspit Louisiana Architecture 1714-1830. (Lafayette, LA: The Center for Louisiana Studies
1996). 5.
'- Mary Cable. Lost New Orleans. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1980). 7. Cable explains that
colombage et mortier was a Colonial adaptation of a Norman construction method that traditionally
combined stone and timber.
Samuel Wilsoa Jr. The Vieux Carre New Orleans Its Plan. Its Growth, Its Architecture. Historic
District Demonstration Study. Conducted by Bureau of Governmental Research New Orleans Louisican
for the City of New Orleans. ( 1 %8). 23 .
■'■' Cizek. Eugene. "Beginnings." Louisiana Buildings 1720- 1940: The Historic American Buildings
Sun'ey. Poesch, Jessie and Barbara SoRelle Bacot. eds. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Universitv Press
1997). 17. •
^■' Mills Lane, Architecture of the Old South: Louisiana. (New York: Beehive Press. 1990). 23, quoting
Dmbai Rowlaivi and Alben Godfrey Sands:TS.AfississippiPro\'incial Archives V (Baton Rouge 1984) 116
'* Ibid. 23. ■ 6 > A ■
^■^ Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Visitors to New Orleans often reported on the brick construction/^ but it was not until
the almost complete loss of wood buildings in the great fires of 1788 and 1794 that
New Orleans became a city of brick. Laughlin described New Orleans architecture:
"Known as briquette entre poteaux, it consisted of using a fi-amework of timbers
packed in between with soft bricks, and supporting a segmented tile roof, whose
flashing and chinking was done with mortar ... All walls were then plastered over to
seal the bricks.'"*^ As a result of the 1788 fire, and another in 1795, Spanish authorities
declared new building regulations for New Orleans. These regulations required that
houses be built within the central fortified area and that:
In order to prevent fires in the ftiture . . . should all be constructed of
brick or lumber and filled with brick between the upright posts, the
posts to be covered with cement of at least one inch thick, "^^
The poor quality of the early New Orleans bricks and the necessity that they be
protected from weathering by plaster has been highlighted by many writers. In 1913,
Owen Allison told fellow architects what might be found in New Orleans:
. . he will find simple grace and dignity imparted with a master's skill to rotten,
old, soft red brick made from the batture mud of the Mississippi, covered for
the most part with stucco of lime obtained from the burning of oyster shells.
Ibid, 26. Quoted Honore Michel de la Rouvelliere in 1752 and Philip Pittman in the 1770s. from
Philip Pittman, The Present State of the European Settlements on the Mississippi (London. 1770). 42-43;
David Lee SterUng. ed. "New Orleans. 180 1 : An Account by John Pinlard." Louisiana Historical Quarterly,
Vol. 34. No. 3 (Jul>' 1 95 1 ), 230. John Pintard also commented on the brick buildings in New Orleans.
^^ Laughlin, C.J. "The Architecture of New Orleans" Architectural Re\'iew v. 100 (1946 Aug.): 35-36.
Barbara SoRelle Bacot . "New Orleans After the Fires" Louisiana Buildings 1720 - 1940: The
Historic American Buildings Survey. Jessie Poesch and Barbara SoRelle Bacot, eds. (Baton Rouge
Louisiana State University' Press. 1997). 42: Lane. 26; and Samuel Wilson. Jr.. "The ArchitecUire of
New Orleans.' ,4Z4 Journal. (August 1959): 32-35. All have taken this quote from theRecords and
Deliberations of the Cabildo, IV. typescript, WPA. 1936.
^5 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
and in which are imbedded good old cypress beams as sound today as when
first hewn. ^^
The soft river bricks, called simply "reds" by local masons, were not the only bricks
used in New Orleans. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century, clay deposits of
good quality were discovered on the bay coast at Ponchatoula and Slidell. Bricks made
from this clay were hard enough to allow exposure, although they were usually also
protected with stucco or painted.^' These lake bricks are locally called "tans" and are often
spotted with partially burnt iron impurities. Joseph Holt Ingraham writing in The South-
West by a Yankee in 1835 described the parishes north of Lake Pontchartrain:
They burn great quantities of lime from the beds of shells, which cover
large tracts near the lakes; they also send sand from the beaches of the
lakes, for covering the pavements of New Orieans. They have also, for
some years past, manufactured brick to a great amount, and have
transported them across the lake.^^
Brickmaking was an important industry in New Orleans during the nineteenth century.
According to Rightor's Standard History of New Orleans,
Among the ante-bellum industries which did well in New Orleans because it did not
pay to carry them on elsewhere, were naturally the building trades and the
manufacture of building materials - brick, tile, lumber, etc. The brick was made
almost exclusively in New Orieans, or at points aaoss the lake in St. Tammany
parish."
'° Allison Owen, "The Architectural Charm of Old New Orleans." Journal of the American Institute of
Architects, vol. 1. (1913): 426.
Samuel Wilson. Jr. and Bernard Lemann. New Orleans Architecture Vol. 1 The Lower Garden
District (Gretna. LA: Pelican Publishing. 1971). 59.
^' Ingraham 275.
H. Rightor. Standard History of New Orleans (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co.. 1900). 514.
•^6 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
New Orleans was also a busy shipping port and could import face bricks for important
civic construction work. One customs manifest from 1821 to 1832 showed the
importation of brick from Boston, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Philadelphia, Alexandria,
Liverpool, New York, Genoa, Baltimore and Pensacola. The bricks imported included
"35,000 bricks and freestone for Custom House 1/9/1821", "Fire" bricks, "Hard" bricks
and "Blown" bricks.^'*
The tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No, 1 were based on the local brick building traditions,
and all but two of the tombs surveyed are of local hand made orange-red river brick or tan
and/or spotted lake brick. This tradition is further verified by the many historical
references made by Benjamin Latrobe and other cemetery visitors in the nineteenth century
to plastered brick.
As a construction material, brick served St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 well. Brick has high
compressive strength (2,000 to 6,000 Ib/sq. in. depending on mode of manufacturing)
which can easily carry the load of the tomb structure and its minimal contents. Brick
has low tensile strength, so must span voids in an arched or vaulted manner where
tensile stress can be converted to compressive stress." The tomb vaults were
constructed in such a manner. However, there are flat roofs at considerable risk on
tombs in the cemetery that do not have arched support.
54
Customs Manifest -YedQisl Archives. N.O., LA. Brick. 1/9/1821 to 7/5/1832.
Cecil C. Handisyde. Building Materials: Science and Practice fLondon: Architectural Piess, 1%1). 66.
^7 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Brick has a low coefficient of thermal expansion as compared to lime or cement
mortar, and as long as the clays are fully fired, the amount of expansion due to
moisture absorption is negligible.'^ The slightly rough surface of handmade brick
provided a good mechanical key to lock in bedding mortars and stucco coverings. The
soft porous brick had high porosity and could adjust well to variations in capillary rise
in ground water. Brick would absorb water in relation to their porosity, with lowest
density brick absorbing more than higher." The river "reds" were more porous and would
be expected to absorb more moisture than the lake "tans" at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 .
Brick, and its deterioration, has been the topic of considerable research. Deterioration
issues are mostly related to water; water eroding exposed, poorly fired areas of brick,
water depositing sahs within the pores fi-om the soil or airborne pollution, water
breaking down the adhesion between brick and mortar, or between brick and stucco,
water related fi-eeze-thaw damage, or water initiated corrosion of attached or embedded
metal. Even with these deterioration risks, brick construction is very durable.
According to one brick admirer, "It is well known that clay bricks are usually extremely
Torraca, Giorgio. Porous Building Materials: Materials Science for Architectural Conser\>ation.
(Rome: ICCROM. 1981). 29. The thermal expansion coefficient for a common brick is 510^ vs. cement
mortar at 10-1110 and a lime mortar at 8-1010^: Robinson. Gilbert C. "Characterization of Bricks and
their Resistance to Deterioration Mechanisms." Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments
N.S. Baer, ed. (Washingtoa D.C.: National Academy Press, 1982). 157. Reports that the moisture exiansion for
brick is usually less than 0.04%.
D. Hoffmann, and K. Niesel. "Moisture Movement in Brick." Proceedings : In Vth International
Congress on Deterioration and Conser\>ation of Stone. Lausanne, 25-27.9.1985, G. Felix, ed. vol. 1
(Lausanne. Suisse: Presses Polytechniques Romandes. 1985). 103.
^S Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO
durable and that although they may change in appearance after considerable exposure, they
usually do so in a manner which is pleasant rather than otherwise."^^
3.3.3 Mortar, Stucco, Plaster and Render'^
Mortar, stucco, plasters and renders are all members of a group of adhesive mixtures
containing compounds of lime, and certain allied compounds of magnesium, capable of
uniting fragments or masses of solid matter to a compact whole which can be defmed as
calcareous cements.^^ Another, definition is that "mortars, plasters and renders are
combinations of binder pastes and fillers, with or without fibrous reinforcements and are
used in, or applied to, a wide variety of masonry and lightweight backgrounds."^' The
basic components are the binder paste, sand or aggregate, and water. The binder can be
clayey soil, lime, hydraulic lime or cement.^^
*^ Handisyde, 176.
"Plaster" is usually a term reserved to describe a ini.\ture used in the interior of a building, although
m New Orleans, the term is commonly used to describe exterior coverings, such as those on the tombs at
St. Loms Cemetery No. 1. "Render" and "stucco" are terms commonlv used to describe mixtures for
exterior coverings, with "render" being used more by the European communitv and "stucco" used more
often m the United States. For this document the term "stucco" will be used to describe exterior
coatings, unless the term "plaster" is used in a historical quote, and the term "mortar" will be used to
de^cnbe the mi.xture used in the construction of the brick waU. or for generic discussions of the class
^^ F. M Lea, The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete (New Yoric: Chemical Pubhshing Company, 1 97 1 ). 1 .
John Ashurst, Mortars, Plasters and Renders in Conservation (London: Ecclesiastical Architects'
and Surveyors' Association, 1983), 9.
- In modem language, "cement " is generally understood to mean Portland cement. However, the term
was used historically and depending on the term's use, it often meant the hydraulic binder.
39 Tomb Decay Mechamsnts
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
In this research, it was of interest to consider the hydraulicity of the stucco binder, as
the primary reactions and issues of Hme, hydraulic lime and cement can contribute
differently in certain decay mechanisms. It was also suspected that hydraulic limes
were used in the exterior stucco at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 .
Lime is derived from the burning (calcination) of one of the naturally occurring forms of
calcium carbonate, such as shell, limestone, chalk or marble. In a mortar mix, the
calcium oxide carbonates through the loss of H2O by a reaction with CO2 in the air. This
is a slow process and the full cure can take years depending on many factors such as the
thickness of the wall, exposure to air, relative humidity of the surrounding environment
and any surface coatings.
Calcination in a kiln at 880°C or
above to drive off CO2.
CaCOs
Calcium Carbonate
or limestone, shell, marble, etc.
Upon exposure to
Carbonation takes pla^
CO2 is taken from the
atmosphere
" CaO
Calcium Oxide
or Quicklime
ThejQuicklime is
ded to water -
The process of
Slaking
Ca(OH)2
Calcium Hydroxide
or Slaked Lime
Hydraulic limes are those achieved from certain argillaceous or clay-based limestone.
When burned, calcium silicates and calcium aluminates are produced in addition to the
calcium oxide. Hydraulic limes are set by hydration, a chemical reaction with water.
40
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
and are referred to as "hydraulic" because of this fact. They also are called "hydraulic"
for a second reason: when hardened, hydraulic lime mortars are water-resistant. The
calcination process is similar to that for lime, except that kiln temperatures can be as
high as 1200°C. The clay decomposes between 400 and 600°C and combines with
some of the lime after 950°C. The calcination temperatures used in production, and the
differing impurities found in argillaceous limestone, create a great deal of variation in
hydraulic limes. Hydraulic limes are classified by their hydraulic ability as feebly
hydraulic lime (<12% clay materials, sets in 15-20 days after immersion), moderately
hydraulic lime (12%-18% clay materials, sets in 6-8 days after immersion) and
eminently hydraulic lime (18%-25% clay materials, sets 2-4 days after immersion). ^^
Natural cements are actually eminently hydraulic limes. ^'*
Example of one hydraulic phase, dicalcium silicate.
2 CaOSi02 + H2O ^ Ca-Si02-H20 + Ca(0H)2
Ca(0H)2 + C02 ^ CaCOs + H20
CaO-Si02-H20 + CO2 ^ CaCOa + Si02 + H2O
Lime mortars can also be made hydraulic by the addition of hydraulic materials,
pozzolans, like ground brick or volcanic material. The final reaction results are the
same as for the hydraulic lime. "From a practical point of view, hydraulic mortars used
since the middle of the 18'*' century and containing hydraulic lime do not show,
chemically and once hydrated, any significant difference when compared with lime-
*^ The setting times are taken from L.J. Vicat. A Practical and Scientific Treatise on Calcareous
Mortars and Cements, Artificial and Natural. Translated by Captain J.T. Smith. (1837 reprint London:
Donhead Publishing Ltd., 1997), 6-8.
'^ John Ashurst and Francis G. Dimes. Conser\'ation of Building & Decorative Stone. (O.xford:
Butterworth Heinemann. 1998), 81.
4 1 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
pozzolans mortars developed by the Romans, since the reaction products are the
same."^^ Generally, there is no analytical need to distinguish a hydraulic lime from a
lime mortar made hydraulic through the addition of hydraulic material. If so, optical
microscopy is the best tool to observe the differences in the aggregate components.
Addition of pozzolans material to a lime mix.
CaO + H20^Ca(OH)2
Ca(0H)2 + CO2 ^ CaCOs + H2O and Ca(0H)2 + Si02 + H2O -> CaO— Si02— H2O
CaO-Si02-H20 + CO2 ^ CaCOs + Si02 + H2O
The principal difference between natural hydraulic lime, or natural cement, and modem
cement is in the temperatures of production. ^^ To produce modem cement, the lime is
burned well above the sintering temperature of around MOOT, producing different
hydraulic phases. The phase diagrams for cement are quite complex. As a gross
simplification, the major hydraulic phase of cement is called C3S (3 CaO-Si02), or
alite, whereas the dominant hydraulic phase in hydraulic lime is C2S (2 CaO'Si02), or
belite. Also, because of the temperatures used in production, certain compounds, such as
gehlenite, are no longer present in cement, and others would be found in very small
quantities, such as free Ca(0H)2 and calcite. Of the four major phases of cement, alite,
(50-70%, tricalcium silicate), belite (15-30%, dicalcium silicate), aluminate (5-10%,
tricalcium aluminate), and ferrite (5-15%, tricalcium aluminoferrite), each has distinctive
^' Philippe Gleize, et. al.. "Ancient Rendering Mortars fiom a Brazilian Palace: Its Characteristics and
Microstructure," Cement and Concrete Research 30 (2000): 1613, quoting from M. Collepardi. "Degradation
and Restoration of Masonry Walls of Historic Buildings," A/aterw/^/rMcrure 23 (1990): 81-102.
** Modem cement generally means Portland cement
42 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
phase change temperatures and crystalline forms." These small differences can be
useful clues for a researcher analyzing for historic hydraulic lime.
As mentioned in the section on brick, the brickwork in New Orleans was usually
covered with stucco. Speaking of New Orleans architecture of the mid-nineteenth
century, Curtis and Spratling said in 1925 that the natural surface of brick was not left
exposed and that there was a universal distaste for the red color of brick. "Perhaps
experience had taught that the brick obtainable were apt to be porous, hence liable to
become damp and mouldy [sic] and easily discolored."^^
It is thought that due to the very wet climate in New Orleans, builders would have used
hydraulic lime and natural cements in the nineteenth century. As early as 1703, Joseph
Moxon advised that "lime made of hard Stone [containing clay], is fit for Structures, or
Buildings, and Plastering without Doors or on the out side [sic] of Buildings that lie in
the Weather."^^ In 1849, Joseph Gwilt discussed Smeaton and Higgens' work on chalk
[pure lime] vs. stone lime [containing clay] with the aggressive conclusion that "there
is no excuse for its [chalk lime] use and it should in sound building be altogether
^ H.F.W. Taylor, Cement Chemistry (SmI>\Q%o: Academic Press. 1990), 1-32.
N.C. Curtis, and WUliam P. SpraUing, "Architectural Tradition in New Orleans." The Journal of the
American Institute of Architects, Vol. XIII. no. 8 (August 1925): 285.
*' Joseph Moxoa Mechanick Exercises or the Doctrine ofHandvWorks. 2°^ ed, London (1703 reprinL
Morristown. NJ: Astragal Press). 241.
•^■^ Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
banished." Although no stone, clay containing or otherwise, available locally in
New Orleans, the properties of "stone lime", or hydraulic lime would have been known
to the cosmopolitan community of architects, and imported lime was available from the
north. Natural cements, which are actually hydraulic lime, were first used on the Erie Canal
in 1 8 1 8, and by 1 828 there were several cement works established in New York,
Pennsylvania and Kentucky and product was shipped all over the developed part of the
country.'^
Yet, in a review of the writings of New Orleans historians and architectural historians,
there is little to be found to describe the binder composition of the historic mortar and
stucco mixtures. One local architect, Henry W. Krotzer, who read many of the archival
journals of the early New Orleans builders and researched available work orders and
receipts from projects that occurred in the mid 1800s, said that he found very little
specific information in the documents.'^ One small reference to an estimate of required
"Cement (Hydraulic) - 14,370 barrels. Lime - 9,646 barrels. Sand - 52,619 barrels and
Shells - 18,818 barrels" was found in the Thomas K. Wharton journals along with several
indications that he was specifying lake brick for the new Customs House in 1854.'^
Joseph Gwilt The Encyclopedia of Architecture: The Complete Guide to Architecture, from
Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century, (1867 reprint. New York: Bonanza Books, 1982), 533.
^' Mckee. 68.
'^ An interview with Henry W. Krotzer, March 20, 2002.
'^ Samuel Wilson. Jr. ed. Queen of the South: New Orleans, 1853-1862 Journal of Thomas K.
nitarton. New Orleans: Historic New Orleans Collection and NY Public Libran. 1999), 22. 32. 266.
44 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Portland cement was also widely used at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1. The history of
Portland cement begins in 1824 with Joseph Aspdin's patent on new and improved
cement, called "Portland" because it resembled color of stone from Isle of Portland.
The manufacturing of Portland cement began in the United States in the 1870s, in
several locations. The industry grew rapidly. By 1878, there were 28,000 barrels
reported to have been manufactured in the U.S. and by 1896, 1,543,023 barrels were
reported.'^ By 1937, 1 18,000,000 barrels were produced in the United States."
When analyzing historic materials, it is important to realize that the change to Portland
cement did not happen all at once, but as a gradual evolution. The historic hydraulic
limes, natural cements and early manufactured cements will all have similarities,
particularly when mixed with local sand. The modem Portland cement mortars are
made of materials that have been produced in very controlled and standardized
processes and the differences seen in analytical techniques will be quite clear, and
might not be representative of an earlier production time, so current cements are not
good standards to use in historic mortar analysis.^^
' Jasper O. Draffin. "A Brief Histon' of Lime, Cement. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete" Journal of
the Western Society of Engineers Vol. 48 No. 1 (March 1943): 5-37. He reports the data from Uriah
C\imxamg&. American Cements (1898). 289.
'' Draffin. 13, He reports this data from Cement and Concrete: A General Reference Book (Portland
Cement Associatioa 1941).
^ K.J. Callebaut. et. al.. "Nineteenth Century Hydraulic Restoration Mortars in the Saint Michael's
Church (Leuven. Belgium) Natural Hydraulic Lime or Cement?" Cement and Concrete Research 3 1
(2001): 403.
■^5 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The topic of historic mortar analysis and deterioration is a large and complex area of
research. As in brick, most of the deterioration processes take place triggered by water.
From ancient history, stucco has often been used with a fiill understanding that these
processes will take place, and that they will take place most efficiently at the exterior
surface. If the masonry is covered with stucco as a sacrificial exterior layer, the
replaceable stucco will absorb the bulk of the damage, leaving the inner core safe. This
logic holds, as long as the stucco layer is renewed periodically as it loses its functionality
and becomes too deteriorated.^^
Considerable research has been directed to the topic of replacement mortars and stucco,
as can be seen by many of the article titles in the bibliography at the end of this thesis.
During the mid-twentieth century, war damaged resources in Europe were
reconstmcted using Portland cement, and the heavy use of Portland cement continued
for restoration projects well into the 1970s. The rate of deterioration was much greater
than had been expected, and research projects soon identified the major causes.
According to the concluding summary on historic mortars at the 2000 RILEM
Workshop: "There is general agreement that the use of highly hydraulic cement based
mortars for restoration and renovation has caused extensive damage to cultural heritage."'^
"' Torraca 108-109.
'' Caspar J. W.P. Groot. Peter J.M. Baitos and John J. Hughes. "Historic Mortars: Characteristics and
Tests - Concluding Summary and State-Of-The-Art." International RILEM Workshop on Historic
Mortars: Characteristics and Tests. Paisley, Scotland 12"'-14"'Mav 1999. P. Bartos ed (Cachan France
RILEM Publications, 2000). 450.
■^6 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The objections to the use of eminently hydraulic limes (natural cements), and
especially Portland cement, are based on their high strength, more impermeable nature
and the risk of transferring soluble salts to vulnerable masonry materials. Their
adhesion properties are usually too good, particularly to old masonry, and their thermal
expansion is often as much as twice as great. Any weakness caused by material
movement will be transferred to the weaker material, and the stress will damage or
break the historic material.'^ By being less permeable, OPC (ordinary Portland
cement) will drive moisture in the direction of the more porous masonry, again forcing
the deterioration mechanism to take place most aggressively in the historic material. *°
It is now generally accepted conservation practice that repair mortars should exhibit
properties already present in the in-situ material; must be compatible given the
surrounding envirormiental factors; must be appropriate to the state of conservation (or
deterioration) of the existing structure, especially for any damaging processes already
in place; and must be suitable for the fianction of the mortar or stucco application under
consideration.*'
' Torraca 80.
^° David Carrington and Peter Swallow. "Limes and Lime Mortars - Part Two. " Journal of
Architectural Conservation, No. 1 (March 1996): 7-22.
^' Rob P.J. Van Hees. "Damage Diagnosis and Compatible Repair Mortars." International RILEM
Workshop on Historic Mortars: Characteristics and Tests, Paisley, Scotland 12"'-] 4"" May 1999.
(Cachan, France; RILEM Publications. 2000). 27-35.
47 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
3.3.4 Surface Finish
The traditional St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 surface finish was lime wash. Limestone, or
calcium carbonate, was calcined to decompose into calcium oxide, which, when immersed
in water, hydrolyzed to calcium hydroxide. This material went onto the stucco as lime
wash. As it dried, the calcium hydroxide reacted with the carbon dioxide in the air to reform
as a new crystalline form of calcium carbonate, or calcite. The calcareous nature of lime
based paints results in a coating of low opacity, creating the characteristic surface glow
associated with lime washed surfaces. This effect has never been exactly duplicated in
modem paint products.
The lime served the purpose of filler and base pigment, although evidence exists that
other tinting pigments were sometimes added. Through archival accounts and through
modern microscopic cross- sections, we can verify that the tombs of St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1 were often surfaced in earthen colored lime washes. The lime acted as
the binder, forming a porous inorganic ionic crystalline structure which bound up any
additional colorant (pigment) and provided body. The resultant crystalline structure
was breathable and allowed continued carbonation of the much thicker stucco layer
48 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
beneath. Lime wash was also mildly antiseptic, a useful temporary defense against
bio-growth. ^^
Lime wash was not a long-lasting material and traditionally was reapplied every 1-3 years.
It wore off by very fine losses as the crystalline bonds broke, a type of weathering
deterioration that many find less objectionable than the blistering and peeling of modem
latex paints. The purpose of the finish, beyond its decorative appeal, was to help the
highly porous surface of the stucco shed water and resist biological growth. Surface
finishes kept biological organisms fi^om attaching to the rough stucco, directed water
down the tomb and away fi"om the structure and minimized water adsorption on the
stucco surface. The finish would not be able to stop water absorption once liquid water
reached the stucco and interior materials through either the capillary action of rising
damp, or water leakage through cracks and openings in the system. Once that
occurred, a modem non-breathable finish would do greater harm by making the
desorption processes more difficult.
The application of hydrophobic or waterproof finishes was an exercise in futility in this
moist environment. The use of such a treatment assumed that all pores in the
hydrophilic solid could be treated by deep impregnation, which did not generally
" AshursL John and Francis G. Dimes. Conservation of Building & Decorative Stone (O.xford:
Butterworth Heinemann. 1998). 229.
49 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
happen with available application techniques. Modem hydrophobic films are organic
and subject to oxidation. They break down chemically with time and through UV
degradation. As the film decomposes, color changes, usually to a yellow cast, and
strength decreases. Water accumulation behind the film creates more problems, as water
will eventually find a way into a very porous material by way of rising damp or micro
cracks which will eventually develop in the surface finish or at construction joints.^^
3.3.5 Additional Components
St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 offers many topics for research. The additional tomb
components of marble, used for the closure tablet system, sculptural elements and
limited tomb cladding, as well as the metalwork, used decoratively and for enclosures,
were not included in this research. They also have experienced deterioration and many
of the decay mechanisms discussed herein can also relate to these materials, since most
deterioration is caused or exacerbated by exposure to moisture. Material properties and
mechanical attachment issues differ, however, and fiirther research on these materials
is warranted.
Torraca, 117-118.
50 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
3.4 Environmental Conditions
3.4. 1 The Environment of New Orleans and the Cemetery Site
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the
environment and the constant battle to
keep New Orleans dry feature largely in
the history, culture and practices of the
city. It is easy to believe the graphic
historical accounts of watery graves and
miasmic soil during any visit to St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1 during a heavy summer
downpour
Fig. 3. 6 Flooding between the tombs,
Oct. 2001.
According to Rightor, "New Orleans is situated in a marsh. Its greatest natural
elevation above the sea level is 10 feet 8 inches, which is artificially increased to 15
feet by the levee on the river bank. . . it being impossible to dig three feet without
striking water. Under these circumstances it is readily seen that burial, as understood
in more elevated localities, is out of the question in New Orleans."^'' A modem New
Orleans engineer described the city's topography as plates formed with sectioning
Rightor. 256.
5J
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
ridges. The ridges are 10-15 feet above sea level, but the heavily developed areas
between are below sea level. ^' All water that enters must be pumped out. With heavy
rainfall of 57 inches per year and the mighty Mississippi river surrounding most of the
city, controlling water, particularly flood water, is very critical. The New Orleans
pumps have a total capacity of 42,000 cubic feet per second or a little over a billion
gallons per hour during rain load.^^
It is commonly believed that parts of New Orleans are sinking. Janssen reported on a
study of fifteen permanent benchmarks (US Coast and Geodetic Survey marks,
Louisiana Geodetic Survey, New Orleans Sewerage and Water Board, US Army Corps
of Engineers) over 26 years. The results and his own calculations led Janssen to
conclude that the average subsidence of the ground level is 1 . 12 ft, or 0.043 (approx. I/2
inch) per year.^'' In another article, he reported that stepped-brick spread footings were
popular in French Quarter construction and piling was apparently not used. He
assessed settling of buildings in the French Quarter as fairly even, with a general
downward movement without failure or major cracking of walls. ^*
^' James S. Janssen, James S. "Draining New Orleans" Building New Orleans: The Engineer 's Role. A
Collection of Writings. (New Orleans: Waldemar S. Nelson & Co. 1987). 23.
** "The Pumps that Keep New Orleans Diy." Water Engineering & Management, (9/1/1999).
*' James S. Janssen, "Changes in Elevations in the New Orleans Area". Building New Orleans: The
Engineer's Role. A Collection of Writings. (New Orleans: Waldemar S. Nelson & Co. 1987). 18-19.
** James S. Janssen. "Eaily Masonn,' in Nouvelle Orleans - Was Brick the AnswerT" Building New
Orleans: The Engineer's Role. A Collection of Writings. (New Orleans: Waldemar S. Nelson & Co. 1987). 71.
52 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DEC A Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
A different type of subsidence is believed by many to be occurring at the site. The
partially buried lower vauhs in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 are often offered as proof of
this subsidence, with the assumption that the heavy brick structures are sinking into the
marshy soil. Not enough research has been done to verify this as a fact, and the
historic practice of adding shell and dirt fill to the cemetery paths to make passage
easier during rainy seasons has certainly played an additional role in the height of the
ground at the tomb bases.
New Orleans, at Latitude 29.59 and Longitude 90.15, is not as hot as many perceive.
High humidity in the hottest months makes the temperature feel higher than actual.
The average temperature from May through September is 80.4°F, yet from October
through April, it is very pleasant at 62°F on average. The temperature only rises above
95 °F about 6 days a year, but rises above 90°F between 16-21 days in June through
August. For most of the year, residents and tourists are quite comfortable. Freezing
weather is rare. The highest winds average about 43.6 mph during the year, except in
the September hurricane season where the average is 69 mph. There is usually at least
one hurricane per year during that season. The rainy season is June through August
with 12-13 days of rain per month and total days of rain are 114 per year.^^
*' Comparath'e Climatic Data Report for the U.S. Through 1999. Congressional Information Service.
Inc. 2000. Additional facts taken 6/02 from NOAA website at w^^Tv.noaa.gov.
53 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
According to the 1989 Soil Survey of Orleans Parish, St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 is
located in land classified as Urban Land. Urban Land consists of areas where more
than 85 percent of the surface is covered by asphalt, concrete, buildings, or other
impervious surfaces. ^° The soil of the cemetery has a black clay surface layer about 6
inches thick. This soil contains a large quantity of shell and shell fragments from the
original paving materials. Historically, the groundcover of the cemetery was volunteer
grass and the paths were shell, but a majority of the surfaces are now covered in
asphalt, or more recently, concrete paving. Slope throughout the site was measured
during the Survey to be less than 1 percent.
3.4.2 Biological and Vegetative Growth
The basic requirements for bio-receptivity include an availability of surface on which
they can get anchorage; enough nutrients to sustain their development and growth; and
adequate amounts of water to support their main physiological functions and, in many
cases, their multiplication and dissemination. The rough surfaces and porous micro-
cracked structures of the stucco, mortar and brick, are very conducive to the initiation
and growth of the organisms of both the photosynthetic type that require sunlight, and
the chemosynthetic type that can survive without sunlight.^'
91
Soil Survey of Orleans Parish (Washington: USD A. 1989).
Rakesh Kumar. Biodeterioration of Stone in Tropical Environments (Los Angeles- Gettv
Conservation Institute. 1999). 4.
■'■^ Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The growth process moves from small cell organisms to higher level plam life.
Cyanobacteria and green algae are the first to colonize. They make a continuous bio-
film that thickens as the numbers of species increase. As new taxa appear, the green
algae decrease and a stratification of different species is established. When the bio-
film layer is thick enough (about 100 jim), spores of mosses can germinate. These
spores develop protonemas, which can turn into leafy stems after a few weeks. By this
stage, hygrophilous species begin to take hold, humidity in the micro-environment
increases, and higher forms of flora are possible, particularly so if there are cracks in
the stucco or brick joints where humus has accumulated.^^
The expansive growth nature of these organisms exacerbates all of the decay
mechanisms discussed herein. Most of the real damage is caused by biophysical
deterioration by the growing organism. Cracks are pushed open, adhesive bonds are
ruptured and delamination happens more rapidly. As higher order organisms and root
systems develop, whole-scale detachments occur and individual materials can be
broken, crushed and forced apart. Biochemical deterioration, where the organism
produces corrosive acids and enzymes that damage the substrate material, or where the
organism uses material minerals from the substrate as a source of nutrition, also occurs
at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, but is not a major cause of decay.
■ O. Guillitte. "Biorecepti\it\ and Biodeterioration of Brick Structures," Conservation of Historic
Brick Structures, ed. N.S. Baer. et. al. (Dorset: Donhead, 1999). 70.
55 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The bio-growth organisms and higher vegetation are also damaging aesthetically, as
they create soiled surfaces, mask original details and detract from the original design intent
of the structure. This visual damage is subjective, and viewers differ in their perception of
what amount of biological growth is considered "patina" before being considered
objectionable.
3.4.3 Other Environmental Issues
Two additional issues, traffic vibration and the impact of tourism could be considered
in the larger environmental context. They could also be considered people issues.
Most studies show that vibration stress is not sufficient to cause damage to a structure
when considered alone, and in general does not represent an immediate hazard to
structures." Vibration is most damaging on small elements, particularly those furthest
from a restraining stmctural member. Attached decorative elements meet these
criteria, as does an outer layer of stucco. Vibrations of small amplitude, repeated in
many cycles over time, can weaken the adhesion between materials and can contribute
to the eventual detachment of the fiirthest elements. Vibration can also exacerbate
problems caused initially by other causes. Cracks may have been formed through
shear or tensile stress caused initially by a material's response to moisture. Vibration
Kumar, p. 50; Handisyde. 33; N. Augenti and P. Clemente. "Strength Reduction in Masonrv due to
Dynamic Uads." Proc. lABSE Symposium Extending the Lifespan of Structures, San Francisco vol 2
(Zurich: lABSE, 1995). 1375-80; Paolo Clemente and DarioRinaldis. "Protection of a monumental building
against traffic-induced vibrations." SoU Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 17 (1998): 289-2%.
•56 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
can then cause a widening of the crack, allowing in more water and debris, expanding
the impact of the continuing moisture initiated decay mechanism.
Increasing tourism also threatens St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 . An increase in use can be
damaging to the physical fabric of the site with additional traffic on the paths, handling
of tomb elements, uneven physical stress by those standing on the tombs, and litter.
The garbage, loud tour guides and crowds threaten the park setting and atmosphere for
quiet reflection and contemplation. Yet, tourism keeps crime and vandalism at the site
to a minimum; it keeps the site active; it provides a forum that can be used to educate
the outsider as to the history of a place and a culture; and it brings money into the
city's economy.
Since the early years of its existence, outsiders have been drawn to this place of
mystery, and this magnetism continues today. Tourism is as much a part of the history
of the cemetery as is the construction of the tombs themselves, for as soon as this place
was brought to life in physical form, it was borne into the visitor's imagination.
Though many do not wish to admit it, tourism is one of the principal reasons for which
an attempt is being made to preserve this site. Outside interest creates local interest,
which hopefully will induce a greater interest in preservation. Local grant assistance
and state and federal funding for conservation eflForts only become available to sites
5 7 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
that can demonstrate consumer interest and outreach programs. When considered in
this larger context, and when managed correctly, tourism is a valuable tool for the
conservation of the physical fabric of the tombs, and the preservation of St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1 as an irreplaceable cultural landscape.^'*
Fig. 3. 7 St. Louis Cemetery No. 1. March 2001.
L. Meyer and J. Peters. "Tourism - A Conservation Tool for St. Louis Cemeter\' No 1" unpublished
paper (May. 2001).
58
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
3.5 Moisture Driven Decay Mechanisms
In the above discussion of construction, materials and environment, the concepts of
moisture movement and moisture driven decay mechanisms are often referenced. As
stated by Trechsel: "It is generally accepted that well in excess of 75% (some estimates
being over 90%) of all problems with building envelopes are caused to a greater or
lesser extent by moisture."^^ Given this fact, and the moist climate at St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1, an understanding of moisture driven decay mechanisms is critical for
the interpretation of laboratory results.
Water is delivered to the tombs in St Louis Cemetery
No. 1 through direct rainfall penetrating a structure,
through faulty rainwater disposal (as in design
elements or cracks that direct water to the interior
structure), through rising damp from ground held
water, and through condensation and absorption of
moisture vapor held in the air as humidity, or liquid
droplets as fog or aerosol.
Fig. 3.8 Sources of moisture.
Y
CONDE
ISS
« » «
« « «
^^«» DAMP
ATION
FOG,
» AERq^OL
s *
'^ Heinz R. Trechsel. ed. Moisture Control in Buildings. ASTM Manual Series MNL 18. (Philadelphia:
ASTM. 1994). 35.
59
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Connolly lists the following deterioration mechanisms caused by, or exaggerated by.
inadequate moisture control:
Table 1
J. D. Connolly's List of Deterioration Mechanisms
Caused By Inadequate Moisture Control
Hydrolysis
Osmotic pressure
Alkali-silica reactivity
Delayed ettringite formation
Cyclic freeze/thaw degradation
Micro-organism attack
Vapor pressure
Rising damp
Sah migration/efflorescence
Corrosion (oxidation
Hydroscopicity
Dissolution
Wetting and drying
Dehydrohalogenation
Plasticizer migration
3.5.1 Porosity and Moi sture Movement
A review of the porosity of crystalline solids and methods of moisture transport serves
to illuminate how all these mechanisms can be possible due to water. A material is
porous when it contains interstitial spaces between micro-units (crystals) that are
greater than normal atomic dimensions so that foreign molecules, such as water, can
penetrate them.^^ Deterioration occurs because of either a physical or chemical
incompatibility between two materials, or between a material and an externally applied
* J.D. Connolly. "Humidity and Building Materials" Bugs, Mold and Rot II, Proceedings of a
Workshop on Control of Humidity for Health, Artifacts and Buildings. (Washington. DC: National
Institute of Building Sciences. 1993). 29-36.
'^ P. J. Sereda, "The Structure of Porous Building Materials." Canadian Building Digest 127. (July 1970): 3.
60
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO 1
force. In non-porous materials, such stresses are limited to the external surface. In a
porous material, the incompatibilities can impact the surface and build up pressure
within the material by impacting on the interior surfaces of the pores. Whether the
impact initially comes from a physical or chemical action, the internal action becomes
mechanical stress causing the small pore structure to move to relieve the stress,
eventually resulting in a crack.
Materials seek to relieve stress or
pressure, on the macro, micro and
atomic levels. This can be illustrated in
the movement of water through a porous
structure. The brick, mortar and stucco
in this research are all crystalline porous
materials made up of carbonates,
silicates, aluminates and/or oxides. All
of these crystals are oxygen rich and
carry a negative charge, creating polar
surfaces. Polar surfaces are considered
hydrophilic (water loving) as they attract
//
Porous Surface
Hydrophilic, Water Loving
* * ^ .*.*
t*4* **A* **Z*
**1, "#1 "-^
Available Water Sources
H+
i1+ H
><+ H +
\,
Hydrogen Bond Attraction
Fig. 3.9 Attraction of water molecules to
hydrophilic porous materials. Adapted from
Torraca.
'^ Alan Olivier. Dampness in Buildings. T^ ed.. Rev ised bv James Douglas and J. Stewart Stirling
(London: Blackwell Science, 1997). 9.
61
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
the positively charged hydrogen atoms of the water molecule, creating hydrogen bonds
between the material and water. Being bound to the water is the more comfortable state
on the atomic level. This strong attraction to water occurs on the surface of the porous
material and inside all the surfaces of the pores, creating a powerful pull for water
molecules in the vicinity to cover up a molecule of material surface. As each molecule
of water is bound, more follow, since water also is attracted to itself This attraction on
the molecular level begins to explain the absorption capability of these materials.^^
If water is in a liquid state, it first moves through the porous material through capillary
action, which can also be described by the attraction of water molecules to the
material's hydrophilic surface. The skin of the water, called the meniscus, is filled
with water molecules presenting their iT ends to the polar substrate. The smaller the
pore, the stronger will be the capillary pull. As an example, water will rise 3 1 mm in a
1 mm tube vs. 154 mm in a 0,2 mm tube under laboratory conditions. In the small
pores within a brick, capillary movement can easily overcome the force of gravity. "'^
If the attraction of the polar surface to water molecules were the only transport
mechanism at work, materials would fill and stay perpetually wet. However, the
reality is a dynamic situation with both material and water always changing to reach
their most comfortable states. Liquid water can move through a porous material by
Torraca, 2.
' Giovanni Massari and Ippolito Massari. Damp Buildings Old and New. (Rome: ICCROM, 1993), 7.
62 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
diffusion, moving from the higher water concentration to a lower concentration, a less
stressful state. Vapor diffusion occurs as water molecules move from air containing
high levels of water molecules (high vapor pressure or high relative humidity) to a
region of low water molecules (low vapor pressure, dry air or dry part of the porous
material), which is how porous materials absorb water molecules from an atmosphere
of high relative humidity. With heat, water moves from the warmer to the cooler
region to be at a more stable state.
Another vapor state movement is called condensation, and is when the surface of a
material is cooler than the dew point of the surrounding air. The water molecules can
exist as vapor in the air at the given temperature and relative humidity, but will join
together and coalesce into a liquid on the cooler surface. The molecules first adsorb
onto the surface, and then will begin to be absorbed by the material if conditions are
favorable. Adsorption is the process by which fluid molecules are concentrated on a
surface through physical and/or chemical forces.^"'
Trechsel. 36.
63 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Figure 3.10 shows the 4 Levels
of wetting as described by
Torraca.'"^ Level I is the dry
state where the material surface
and the interior surfaces of the
pores have O" molecule ends
waiting for the H^ ends of a
water molecule. Water will
distribute through a porous
material first by capillary
transfer, then by diffusion. It
Level I Wetting Level II Wetting
Level III Wetting Level IV Wetting
Fig. 3.10 The 4 levels of wetting for a hydrophilic porous
material. Adapted from Torraca. will fill the small capillaries first,
as seen in Level II, and will coat the walls of the pores, as seen in Level III, before
beginning to fill the cavities and larger voids. The term "critical water content" is often
used to describe the point at which all small capillaries are filled and the pore surfaces
are covered. At this point, water movement changes fi-om vapor absorption and
capillary pull or suction to the slower diffiasion of liquid water through the pore spaces
in the wetting process.
Torraca, 12.
64
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
When graphed as amount absorbed per unit surface (m) vs. the square root of time, as in
Figure 3. 1 1, this section of the absorption curve flattens out. The relationship of water
absorption follows the law m = A Vt, where m is the amount of water absorbed per unit
surface and A is the slope of the first part of the absorption curve, or the Capillary
Absorption Coefficient. An analogous formula to describe the penetration depth into a
material (X) is X = B Vt and X is proportional to the square root of time (t). In this formula,
B is called the water penetration coefficient and is also the slope of the first part of the curve.
These coefficients establish the property of the hygroscopic behavior of a material. A
comparison of the coefficients of each material in a composite structure highlights
incompatibilities in how fi-ee water progresses, or is inhibited, within the total system.
0548-01 Brick with Stucco - Capillary Absorption Curve
1.60
1.40
1.20
a. E 1.00
5 • 0 80
I 0 6(V.i^
040
0.20
0.00
Capillary Absorption Coefficient = .0277 g/cm sec
400 600
Square root of Time (sec)
Fig 3.11 Capillary Absorption Curve for 548-01 Brick with Stucco.
'°^ B.R Vos, "Water Absorption and Drying of Materials" In The Consen'otion of Stone I, Proceedings of
the International Symposium. Bologna, 19-21 June 1975. R. Rossi-Manaresi. ed.. (Bologna: Centro per la
conservazione delle sculture all'aperto 1976), 684. The water penetration coefficient and rising damp is
fiirther discussed in B. H. Vos. "Moisture in Monuments," Application of Science in Examination of Works of
Art. William J. Young, ed. (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts. 1970): 147-153.
65
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
3.5.2 The Evaporative Drying Process
Moisture can enter a porous solid in both the vapor and Hquid stage, but primarily
leaves only through evaporation in the vapor stage. Here again, the drive to move to a
more comfortable state has to exist for the water to move. When a wet surface is
exposed to dry air, water leaves to move to a state of low water molecules and de-
sorption or drying begins to occur. Since only a small portion of the water covered
surfaces in a porous material are actually exposed to the dry air, this process can be
much slower than the wetting process. Evaporation works best when the air is
significantly less than 100% RH. In the tiny micro-environment of a wet pore, the
environment stays at the 100% RH state and there is no internal drive to move the water.
The point where drying by evaporation slows down is called the "critical water content" or
bending point. RILEM calls it the "Kjiickpoint."""* At this level, diffusion has stopped
and the material's capillary conduction properties take over, as the small pores hold
onto water molecules based on the oxygen to hydrogen attraction, making it difficult to
fully dry the material. '°^
RILEM Test No II. 5 Evaporation Curve. This is the same state seen in wetting when just the pore
surfaces are covered in water. See Level HI in both the wetting and drying sketches.
"'^ Massari and Massari. 26-30.
66 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
Level II Drying
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Torraca used the same 4 level
diagram to describe the drying
process, adapted here in Figure
3. 12 to show the differences in
the direction of moisture
movement. The dry air has
caused the surface held water
to evaporate in Level IV, and
this evaporation continues as
water in the liquid state moves
to the surface and molecules
near the surface evaporate.
Level I Drying
Fig. 3.12 The 4 levels of drying for a hydrophilic porous
material. Adapted from Torraca.
However, once the open spaces empty of liquid water, the process has very little
initiative to move beyond Level IE, or the point of critical moisture content.
When the drying rate curve of relative moisture lost per time (AY/At) is plotted against
moisture content (Tg/cm^), this change in drying rate can be seen. To fully dry out the
material, more energy, such as heat, wind and/or a lot of time will often need to be applied
externally to drive the water out through evaporation. When comparing materials, the
67
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
lower this number is, the longer is the period where the diffusion process is still
occurring and the easier it is to dry the material. ^^^
02-01 Tan-Gray Combo, Drying Rate
Amount of Moisture Lost per Unit Time vs. Moisture Content
0.400
0.350
0 300
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
_ Critical moisture content ^c
k.
^pmhhI
0.030 0.020
Moisture Content (T g/cm ^)
Fig. 3. 13 Drying rate curve shows critical moisture content point
Different materials will all have similarly shaped multi-stage absorption and drying
curves, but will differ in rates and intensities of moisture movement and phase change
depending on specific properties, such as porosity and chemical composition. The
graphing of these moisture relationships helps to identify how materials will interact
together when joined by an adhesive bond, and whether their combination will assist or
restrict water movement.
Vos, "Water Absorption and Dr>ing of Materials," 690.
68
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Depraetere and Hens described the interface between dissimilar materials as one of
three types. A hydraulic contact exists where the pores match up and there is a
continuity of capillary pressure and moisture flow across the interface. This situation
can exist with a replacement stucco which has been very closely matched to an original
layer in-situ. For many interfaces, there is actually air space along the bond, leading to
a discontinuity in moisture movement. In the natural contact, there is good physical
contact and adhesion, but the pores are different in size, or miss each other, also
causing discontinuities in flow. In most cases of muhiple stucco layers, they bond to
brick and mortar, or contain micro-cracks between the layers and there will be a
combination of air space and natural contact interfaces. '°'
The tombs at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 have ready access to moisture from falling and
wind-driven rain, leaks from existing micro and macro-cracks, rising damp from the
ground moisture and condensation and absorption from the moist air. The above
discussion describes the various mechanisms that allow the moisture to move through the
materials. Given the moisture availability and its movement, deterioration actually occurs
through chemical and physical means, often by both processes occurring together.
'*" W.J. Carmeliet Depraetere and H. Hens. "Moisture Transfer at Interfaces of Porous Materials:
Measurements and Simulations." International RILEAf Workshop on Historic Mortars: Characteristics
and Tests, Paisley. Scotland ]2"'-14'^May 1999. (Cachan. France: RILEM Publications, 2000). 256.
69 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
3.5.3 Chemical Actions
Moisture is required for any of the chemical actions that cause deterioration in building
materials. '"^ Moisture carries existing salts into solution, and enables many reactions
such as the formation of expansive gypsum or ettringite. Moisture moves sahs in
solution through the porous structure. When the water de-sorbs by evaporation, the
sahs remain in the pore and re-crystallize, usually in a larger, non-elastic form and the
physical damage process begins. The small pore moves to relieve the stress of the
large salt crystals, and
.™p^ .,~<™», Lll-Wet LIV-Dry
small micro-cracks occur.
Micro-cracks, with their
very fine diameters, have
strong capillary suction,
pulling in more sah-laden
water the next time it
becomes available, and
the process continues
with each re-
crystallization of new sah
Fig. 3.14 The salt decay mechanism is a progressive mechanism,
lOrcmg the cracks to grow causing greater decay the more cycles the material experiences.
Water molecules
eater pores carrying
salts in solution.
As the water
evaporates, salt goes
out of solution.
Hard, sharp
salt crystals form.
• Crystals shear off '/^T^,^
• sections of porous ^S^ y//
matrix. Micro-cracks 'V- ./^ T, \
form as pores
move to relieve stress
Llll-Dry Lll-Dry
'"^ Oliver. 9.
70
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
and more small cracks to form. The repeated cycling between wet to dry is much more
damaging than if the material stayed perpetually wet with the salt remaining in solution.
The salts are generally more hygroscopic than the porous building material, and will
raise the absorptive property, pulling in more sah-laden water to continue the cycle. At
the interface between materials, as in the bond between stucco and brick, this damage
process eventually breaks the adhesive bond and delamination can occur.
If the adhesive bond between
materials, such as cement stucco and
brick, is too strong, the stress will be
relieved by a rupture in the weakest
material, such as the resuh seen
when the cement stucco pulls off a
layer of the soft brick. pjg j 75 Brick fractured by cement stucco. This isV
sample from Tomb #275 where a new layer of cement
stucco had been applied directly to the brick in locations
where the old stucco had delaminated.
Rain water is slightly acidic because of the dissolved carbon dioxide fi-om the air. This
weak carbonic acid reacts with the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, found in
mortar, stucco, limestone and marble to form bicarbonates, which are slightly soluble
in water and will slowly dissolve. '"^
' Torraca, 38.
71
Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
CO2 + H2O ^ H2CO3
2 H2CO3 + CaCl2 -> Ca(HC03)2 + 2HC1
(one of the many possibilities)
If pH is higher, the carbonic acid converts to water and gives off CO2, which also
causes stress inside a small pore.
Water also enables the reactions that convert sulfur dioxide found in pollution into
sulfuric acid, and oxides of nitrogen and other pollutants into nitric, hydrochloric and
additional other acids. These strong acids deteriorate both carbonates and silicates.
SO2 + H2O + 02^ H2SO4
Here again, the wet / dry cycle accelerates the damaging effects. When wet, a structure
can be coated in a thin film of water filled with salts and pollutant, giving the porous
material the time to absorb the damaging materials. As the material dries and the water
is desorbed, the salts and pollutants remain behind to initiate damage.
3.5.4 Physical Movement
As chemical deterioration occurs, there are physical stresses set up within the pores.
These physical stresses eventually lead to cracks and broken bond adhesion, as the
materials move to relieve the stress. In addition to the foregoing reasons for
movement, displacement also can be due to load-bearing non-uniformities in the soil.
The composition of soil, in terms of gravel, sand or clay, also affects its absorption of
72 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
water. Clay is the most absorbent. Clay is composed of highly absorbent particles
arranged in stacks of hundreds of crystalline plates that slip and slide over each other
when saturated with water. Good building design requires footings sunk beneath such a
layer, but at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, most of the tombs rest on a layer of black clay.
Tomb settlement is evident where heavier tomb mass has sunk eccentrically relative to
threshold. Differential movement in the soil can create shear stress in the tomb structure,
with the weakest bonds cracking first to relieve such stress. Cracking will occur first in the
stucco layer. Where it is closely bonded to the main structure, the rigidity of the finish will
determine whether and how much cracking will result. "'^
Another moisture related physical movement is caused by the growth of biological
organisms and higher level flora as discussed in Section 3.4. This is a very prevalent
problem at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, as small cracks formed by the above processes
soon become breeding grounds for the aggressive growth of algae and mosses.
Cracked roofs also present ready germination sites that collect dirt and seeds deposited
by birds, insects and the wind. The growing plants serve to further humidify the micro-
environment of the material's surface, keeping the materials damp and inhibiting the
de-sorption process.
' Handisyde. 36.
73 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Inorganic materials are rarely subject to UV degradation from exposure to strong
sunlight. However, movement can occur due to thermal differences by conduction due
to the radiant heat from the sun, or convection due to the temperature of the
surrounding air. The amount of differential thermal expansion varies widely based on
the porosity, formation processes and chemical composition of a material. As an
example, Torraca listed the following common material differences:'"
Approximate unrestrained movement for 30°C
change in temperature for materials 1 meter in length
Marble 0.15 mm
Cement Concrete 0.3 to 0.4 mm
Lime- sand mortar 0.3 to 0.4 mm
Common Brick 0. 1 5 to 0.2 mm
Thermal Expansion Coefficients, Unit m/m °C
Concrete 10x10"^
Concrete with exp. Clay 7 to 9 x 10 "^
Cement mortar 10 to 1 1 x 10
Lime mortar 8 to 10x10"^
Brick 5x10"^
Finally, the few remaining risks to the historic resources at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1
are generally man-driven, rather than moisture driven. These include neglected
maintenance, physical impacts through accident or vandalism, theft, mass tourism,
cemetery management decisions, local politics and uninformed conservation efforts. "^
"'Torraca 29. 37.
"" D. CamuflFo. "Perspectives on Risks to Architectural Heritage," Sax'ing Our Architectural Heritage:
The Consen'ation of Historic Stone Structures, Report of the Dahlem Workshop, Berlin. March 3-8,
1996 N.S. Baer and R. Snethlage. eds. (New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.. 1997). 76. 80-81.
74 Tomb Decay Mechanisms
4.0 CURRENT CONDITIONS
4.1 Analysis of Current Condition Survey Data
Based on the Survey made in March, 2001, and field-checked by the Phase 2 team in
October, 2001, site conditions were mapped. A series of condition maps are included
in Appendix A. Based on the results of the Survey, decay mechanisms involving the
brick, mortar and stucco were identified for this research.
St. Louis 1 Cemetery
New Orleans, LA
Condition
Stucco
The overall physical
state of the stucco skin
Very Poor - Significant or
total deterioration
Poor - 9gnrficant areas of
stucco failure and/or
stucco roof surface is breached
Moderate - Stable stucco
condition. Progressive loss
of features and finishes
Good- Stable stucco
condition. Decorative features
largely intact May be cracks,
but patchable byroutrie
I^B Very Poor
I I Poor
j I Moderate
I I Good
I 1 N/A
Dead Spsoe:
Defining the New Oiieans
Creote Cemetenr
Graduate Schcnl of Rne Arts
Unf»er5<y of F^rmsrlvaniB
Basemop, March 2X2
Fig, 4. 1 An example of the condition mapping through GIS. See Appendix Bfor more maps.
75
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
4.2 Field Survey Observations
During the course of the Survey, the Phase 2 field-check, and this research, five trips
were made to the site in March, September, October, and November, 200 1 , and in
March 2002. During the March, 2001, visit, this research had not been contemplated
and observations were primarily concentrated on the specific site Purvey, impacts of
tourism and site specific details required for the development of the site survey
database design and implementation.^'^ The overall personal impression was one of
delight and appreciation for a landscape of picturesque decay, then dismay at the
discordant pockets of bright white rebuilt tombs and the harsh modern surface
materials surrounding so many important historical resources.
During later visits, tomb condition and deterioration results were observed more
closely. For a site that has stood for over two centuries, with maintenance mostly
neglected during the twentieth century, the tombs have performed well. The signs of
deterioration seen in the tombs were not unique, or unexpected. All materials
deteriorate. "The combination of building material properties and environmental
conditions create the requisite components that perpetuate materials deterioration,
hence building failure. . . . Deterioration is not an exception, nor is it synonymous with
"^ Database designed and programmed for the Studio by J.Peters. "Tourism - A Conservation Tool
for St. Louis Cemetery No. 1" unpublished paper co-authored by L. Meyer and J. Peters.
76 Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
[the designer or builder's] failure.""'* Building structures, whether residential,
commercial, or masonry aboveground tombs, will not last forever, and all soon show
similar signs of decay unless repainted periodically, maintained, and necessary repairs
made with some regularity.
The first sign of decay noticed, as one surveyed the site, was the poor condition of the
surface finishes. Many of the surfaces were dirty and heavily covered with biological
growth. The historic lime washes have partially worn away with time and had not been
reapplied recently. In some cases, modem latex paints have been applied over irregular
stucco surfaces containing old paint and lime wash residue, with lack of adhesion
evident. Good adhesion occurs either because of mechanical locking of a film into
another material, by a strong attraction between the molecules of the two materials, or
Good Adhesion Failed Adhesion
Mechanical Lock & Key _ Grease, Bio-Growth
—I ♦ t
H+^TChemical Attraction __Grease, Incompatible
I Surface FinishesI
Fig. 4.2 Adhesion mechanisms include both physical and chemical forces.
"•Harris. 12-14.
77 Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
by both mechanisms working
together. They both depend on
surfaces free of grease, clean,
and all powdery material and old
loosely adherent materials
removed so that no planes of
weakness are established as the
new bonding takes place. "^
Fig. 4.3 An example of cracked and peeling modern finish..
Based on the Survey, of the 617 tombs (not including markers, ruins, or empty spaces),
the surface finish on 304 tombs, or 49% were judged to be in the poorest condition
with a rating of either a "0" or "i" ''^ The survey rated 414 tombs, 67%, as a "0" or
"1" for material integrity of the surface finish."' The loss of the surface finish is a
structure's loss of the first line of defense against the elements and, perhaps more
important, is visually very distracting. An otherwise "good" condition tomb would be
viewed poorly by most viewers because of this loss of the least expensive, and easiest
to fix, part of the building structure system.
"Handisyde 41-42.
"^ Based on the Sun'ey Manual, a surface finish condition of "0" is defined as "Significant or Total
Deterioration: Large-scale surface finish loss and/or failure, exposing stucco or stone beneath." A
surface finish condition of "T" is defined as "Poor Condition: Significant areas of finish failure/loss.
Unsightly peeling and/or flaking of finish. "
" Based on the Sun'ey Manual . a "0" material integrit>' is defined as "Total Loss of Integrit> : 25% or
less of original materials remain or the overwhelming presence of inappropriate replacement materials
and/or alterations" and a "1" is defined as "Low Integrity': 26%-50% of original materials remain or the
significant presence of inappropriate replacement materials and/or alterations."
78
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The stucco, where visible through missing or failing surface finishes, was generally dry
and did not show moisture or salt marks that might be expected from an environment
where rising damp is known to be active. However, as Massari and Massari have
pointed out, one has to be careful with dampness evaluations and the answer is not
always the intuitive one. Efflorescence, an impressive symptom of rising damp, is
not always present, but the lack of this symptom does not mean that the structure
does not have a serious rising damp problem. It may mean only that there are not
significant soluble sahs in the water source. ^^*
Traces of biological growth covered many tombs and were most prevalent on the
bottom third of the tombs and under cornices and other dark areas kept shaded and
poorly ventilated. During the Survey, 54% of the tombs were marked as showing bio-
growth evidence. While the stucco may not have appeared to be damp or showing
signs of sah lines, the prevalence of bio-growth and the condition of lost stucco on the
lower courses still indicated the presence of moisture problems.
The Survey rated only 90 tombs as having a stucco condition as "0" or "1" and only
1 8 1 tombs were judged to have poor or total loss of material integrity. ' '^ These
condition definitions were heavily influenced by the amount of stucco actually lost and
"^ Massari and Massari. 2-3.
'" Based on the Survey Manual a "0" stucco condition is defined as "Significant Deterioration,: Large-scale
stucco loss and/or failure, exposing bride or masonn core." And a T" condition is "Poor Condition: Significant
areas of stucco failure/loss and/or stucco roof surface is breached or compromised b\ loss and craddng."
79 Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
did not well capture the different deterioration mechanisms seen throughout the site. The
Survey did not highly penalize tomb condition on the basis of stucco condition, since
stucco was viewed as a sacrificial layer that could be repaired easily or even replaced in a
restoration project.
Delamination of the stucco layer was a prevalent problem not documented by the
Survey. Delamination occurred both between stucco layers and between the stucco and
the brick. From afar, the layers often appeared attached, but upon closer inspection,
and by rapping the layer lightly,
separation was often quite evident.
Most of the tombs that showed this
condition also had an obvious later
application of stucco onto an original or
earlier surface, and many of the later
stucco layers were of modem cement.
The delamination could have occurred
because the layer never adhered well to
the original stucco, or because the
interface between stucco layers or to the
brick surface broke over time, due to
Fig. 4.4 Delamination and deformation of Stucco differences between two incompatible
80
Current Conditions
MODELISG OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOLIS CEMETERY \0. 1
layers ot materials Once ddaminated. the outer layer lost hs structural support Gra\Tt\- and
the weight of absorbed moisture caused the layer to move ourw-ard, expanding into a
bowed condition. Eventually a crack or gap developed, allowing in rainwater, debris
and bio-growth.
Where tc«nbs had been patdied with cement, the patch edges were often deteri(xatir^
particulariy at the interfece of historic material aixi cement patch. On c«tain tombs,
covered by an obvious layer of modem cement the cement layer had pulled away a
layer of brick where the cemem \H"as applied directly to the soft brick. \S"here%"er
original stucco delaminated fi^om brick, the break was at the stucco to brick interface or
within the stucco layer itself.
Cracking was a condition that w^as surveyed for both the primar\- structure and roof
although, cracks were more appropriately defined as a stucco condition issue. Cracks
in the primar\- structure were docimiented for 368 tombs (60** o), and in the roof for 333
tombs (54° o). There were different panems of cracks seen at the site based on the
deterioration mechanisms at work. Many of the older tombs with unahered stucco
layers had cracks that lined the joints in the brick coursing. In the most serious cases, the
brick w^s actually telescoped out fiom the tomb wall with the stucco oadced at the brick's
edges, but adhered to the brick face VSTiae these aacks had fiilly developed, the interior
naortar was consistently disintegrated.
SI Current CoiiJinofis
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 4.5 Telescoping brick wall.
Fig. 4. 6 Open mortar joints and evidence
ofwetness
A more serious crack
situation was seen in
many of the original
material tombs that were
later encased in cement.
In these tombs, the high
strength of the outer
cement stucco held the
new casing together in
Fig. 4. 7 Tomb n51H Sodiedad Cervantes de B.M.
Restored in new cement.
82
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
compression for a certain time period as the soft permeable inner materials continued
to shift according to moisture and temperature driven decay mechanisms. When the
pressure became too great, the cement casing fractured, and caused large structural cracks
in the structure, as the cement on each side of the crack held on tightly to the soft inner
materials and tore them apart as the crack developed. These cracks could happen
suddenly. The damage was traumatic to the tomb and could not be easily repaired.
Water entry through roof cracks,
or rising damp. Uneven moisture
distribution and progressive
mortar loss causes extensive brick
movement Walls become
unstable. Telescope at weak point
of stucco/mortar joint
Cemfent layer of stucco,
Strengtn restricts initial interior
material movements until stress
builds to release point of a
maior structural crack.
Fig. 4.8 A comparison of damage results seen in walls. Telescoping vs. structural cracking.
The third type of cracking seen at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 was map cracking. These
cracks were evident as a fine network of cracks that do not progress through the stucco
layers. One type of map cracking was most often seen in tombs that have a layer of
83
Current Cotiditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
fmmm'f^mmmmmili^i^'fmmmmfmmm
hard red or gray lime based
surface finish and is a surface
finish to stucco interface
condition that bears further
investigation.
A very different type of map
cracking was seen in the gray
Fig. 4. 9 Salt induced map cracking on cement layer. cement or cement encased
tombs, such as the one seen here in Figure 4.9. These cracks started out as fine map
cracks, then progressed to larger cracks that could destroy the cement stucco layer.
Riccardi, et.al. used optical microscopy to illustrate the expansive needle-like prismatic
hexagonal crystals of ettringite.'^° Collepardi has used thermal analysis techniques with
SEM imagery to explain the deterioration of restoration cement by the formation of
thaumasite and ettringite upon exposure of the cured cement to environmental pollutants.
His work helped explain why ettringite formation leads to cracking, spalling, and loss of
strength and adhesion in concrete stucco.
- M.P. Riccardi et. al.. "Thermal, Microscopic and X-Ray Diffraction Studies on Some Ancient
Mortars," Thermochimica Acta 1,11 (\ 998): 207-2 1 4,
'"' Mario Collepardi. "Thaumasite Formation and Deterioration in Historic Buildings," Cement and
Concrete Composites 2\ (1999): 147-154.
84
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
A number of tombs showed a blistering effect in the stucco, often between layers. This
may be due to the presence of unslaked CaO which would continue to hydrate upon
exposure to moisture.
Generally the failure of multiple stucco layers is not between the layers of original and
new cement stucco. However, where it occurs, the salt decay mechanism, either by
cement salts or dissolved calcite drawn to the surface and re-crystallized, is generally
the cause.
Three additional problems seen throughout the site are related to design mistakes by
the early builders. These problems included flush brick joints, overhanging cornices
and unsupported raised flat roofs. Many of the tombs have stucco layers that could be
easily pulled away from the brick wall. Over time, the adhesion between the stucco
and the brick has broken down. Upon close inspection of these samples, it was found
Fig. 4.10 Stucco applied over flush mortar joint vs. recessed "kev. "
S5 Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
that the mortar joints between the bricks were finished flush with the brick edge, and
the stucco, when apphed, had no "key" to lock it in place. Had the joints been
recessed, the stucco key would have
added additional strength to the
brick/stucco bond and the adhesion
properties would have been much
longer lasting, even with the moisture
driven decay mechanisms that worked
to break down the bond.
Many tombs, in otherwise good
condition, have cornices with broken
comers and exposed brick. Once this
vulnerable roof area is exposed, falling
rain, dirt, seeds, and bird droppings all
can initiate mechanisms that lead to progressive failure of the roof system. As fashions
dictated, cornice profiles were extruded more over the tomb. In most cases, the cornices
were formed entirely of additional stucco material without extra brick or slate support.
After years of gravity pulling moisture laden stucco in a downward direction, the shear
stress flanking the comers caused the break pattem seen.
Fig. 4.11 Cornice failure.
86
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Some of the raised flat roofs, added
most likely as a later addition to
"update" the tomb, have no support,
beyond the stepped bricks along their
edges and a spine down the middle.
This large expanse of roof, only partially
supported, is under tensile, instead of Fig- -^l^ Failed jlal ronJOu a platform tomb.
compressive stress, and neither brick nor stucco has good tensile strength. The stucco
cracks, allowing in moisture. Brick displacement from gravity causes more cracking and
water entry. Where a stone slab has been added to support the roof) as was often used to
support each new tier, the roof remained sound with much less evidence of cracking.
If a tomb had no support under the flat roof, one would conclude that the best roof
would be the lightest one possible. Yet in many cases, roofs have been recovered in
dense cement. In some cases, very heavy preformed concrete roofs have been placed
on the tomb, setting up even greater downward pressure on the tomb top and walls,
adding more stress to the entire system, including the marble tablet in the vault
opening, and will most likely cause accelerated sinking and eccentric settlement.
These new "additions" also completely obliterate the historic materials and cornice
profiles and style evidence.
87
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
There are many conditions of deterioration seen in the marble tablet systems and
metalwork. As they are not the subject of this research, such materials will not be
discussed, except where the system impacts the stucco and masonry. The marble
surrounds on many of the tombs were often sealed to the stucco with incompatible
mortars or modem adhesives, such as epoxies. When these seals broke, a vertical
channel for moisture, dirt and
seeds was created. The
metalwork connection into the
side of the tomb is also a weak
point and many connections
show cracked stucco around the
metal. With corrosion
expanding the metal, the stucco
to metal seal easily breaks,
compromising the stucco layer.
■•": W^
1
,pii
:" - "^Cji^v_-J5.e
h.
^
:y
/^'^
. 'm
r> ^V
»9i
K
fti
i<
If
A.
«^ *
Ti/
w
4"
Fig. 4.13 Tomb nJ4, Cracking at the interface of stucco
and metal connection.
Since there are so many tombs at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 with exposed brick, the
brick condition can be observed quite easily. There are a variety of brick types, colors
and sizes. Often, multiple brick types and sizes can be found in the same tomb. All
bricks observed at the site appear to be handmade, even those fi^om the few tombs that
appear to be of a harder, imported brick. The local river "reds", and the lake "tans"
Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
were both soft, with the river bricks being the softest. These bricks were not intended
to be exposed and needed the protective covering of the stucco. When the stucco was
intact, the bricks beneath showed very Httle deterioration and the mortar in the joints did
not appear to be damaged to any great extent. However, for those tombs where the brick
and mortar were exposed, the mortar joints suffered severe loss and the faces and edges
of the bricks also showed erosion. This was most obvious at the comers of the tombs.
Once the mortar joints break down, the bricks become loose, and shifting of bricks
occur easily as moisture moves through the structure, through thermal expansion, or
from mechanical stresses, such as the addition of a heavy new roof, as mentioned
above. However, in most cases, the load bearing brick walls are quite resilient. This
might be due partly to the fact that as the mortar breaks down, another decay
mechanism takes place as dirt and flora took residence, actually providing needed
support to the damaged joint.
Although these exposed brick tombs appear to be in terrible condition, the trained
conservator can see a relatively standard project. After consulting archival images to
better inform the work, lost bricks need to be replaced, the roof bricks often need
resetting, new bedding and pointing mortar are needed throughout and the stucco and
surface finishes must be repaired or replaced. With these remedies, even the worst
looking tombs can be restored without significant loss of historic fabric.
89 Current Conditions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 4. 14
Tomb #35}
"Before "
Tomb 4. 15
Tomb #351
-After"
90
Current Conditions
5.0 Material Analysis and Characterization
A testing and analysis program was designed to document and characterize the
construction materials in the aboveground tombs at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1. The
field assessment of deterioration patterns had documented that structural integrity of tombs
was rarely compromised as long as the outer skin of protective stucco was intact.
Therefore, the test design emphasized stucco and stucco on brick analysis, and samples
fi-om over 10% of the tomb inventory, well distributed through the site were required.
Through a review of the literature, many mortar and stucco analysis research studies
were identified. While the research objectives varied, there was a general consistency
in methodology. Whether the article was published in conservation journals, journals
on analytical test equipment or cement chemistry publications, the research work
started with documentation and visual inspection and proceeded to methods of
separation, gravimetric analysis, chemical analysis, optical microscopy and physical
response to moisture. Advanced analytical tools used most often were XRD (powder
X-Ray diffraction) and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy). Many of the projects
published were featured in muUiple journals and the later phase of their work focused
on TGA-DTA (thermal gravimetric analysis, differential thermal analysis) and other
specialized techniques used to answer their particular research objectives.
91 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Site Survey
~700 Tombs and Ruins
Conditions Mapped & Analyzed
I
I
//
89 Tombs, 129 Stucco Layers
18 Tombs - Brick and Mortar
Physical Characterization
Total Immersion, Porosity
I
///
Selected Samples (per test)
(~ 30 samples per test)
Capillary Absorption
Drying Rates
WVT
Density
Acid Digestion
Gravimetric
Salts Presence
Microscopy
t^
Advanced Analytical
XRD - 8 stucco layers
TGA/DTA - 8 stucco layers
jy SEM - 3 tombs
Fig. 5. 1 Material analysis
and characterization plan.
This research followed a similar testing plan, starting with physical characterization of
brick, mortar and stucco. As moisture related movement and reactions were
hypothesized to be the primary factors in deterioration, the results from water
absorption by total immersion were used with the characteristic of gross sample color
to separate the large sample set into groups. For a smaller subset of samples, capillary
92
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
absorption and drying rates were studied and gravimetric analysis and micro-structure
were used for documentation. Specific stucco binder components were confirmed with
SEM, XRD and TGA/DTA.
5.1 Sampling Strategies
Since St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 is still an active burial site and the tombs are owned by
families, the sampling program was limited to tombs that were in very advanced states
of deterioration. During sampling visits to the site, a total of 89 tombs were sampled
for 129 stucco layers, and 18 tombs were also sampled for brick and mortar. No tombs
were damaged in retrieving these samples. In each case, the stucco was already
delaminating fi-om the brickwork, or was attached to brickwork that was loose in a
badly deteriorated tomb. The bricks were exposed and loose. Even with this limitation
on sampling, a good distribution of the site, tomb type and stucco and brick type was
achieved. Documentation and photographs of the sample locations contributed to the
final analysis of decay mechanisms. GIS maps indicating those tombs sampled and
their conditions can be viewed in Appendix A.
93 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
5.1.1 Brick
Using the Survey completed in March, 2001, and field checked in October, 2001,
tombs that had a primary structure condition of "0" (Significant or Total Deterioration)
or "1" (Poor Condition) were inspected as candidates for brick sampling. Most of the
poorest condition tombs with available loose bricks were platform, parapet and step
tombs and a majority of the samples came fi-om those tomb types, with the exception of
the brick samples fi-om the 1200 wall vault east and middle sections. Where there was
more than one type of brick evident in a tomb, each was sampled to analyze the
differences.
Although the original plan was to take core samples fi-om several tombs, it was
decided, during the sampling trip, that coring for samples could be too damaging to the
tombs. In a fiiture research project, coring can be attempted when a tomb is selected
for an active restoration project. At that time, it would also be instructive to install
environmental probes within the tomb and within the structural system components, to
monitor temperature and moisture over time.
To obtain an estimate of the moisture vapor transmission of the tomb wall system,
bricks of several tombs were chosen where the complete system of brick, stucco layers
and surface finish were intact. During the Survey in March, 2001, and again in this
94 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
research, attempts were made to retrieve bricks from the site and transport them to the
lab fully sealed so that valid measurements could be made of the moisture content in-
situ. However, the packaging material did not hold up through transport and several
bricks arrived broken and the sealed bags were punctured. In the future, in-situ
moisture content measurement will be best achieved by using a battery operated
balance on site.
5.1.2 Stucco / Surface Finish Assembly
The Survey was also used to identify dated tombs where the stucco condition was "0"
(significant or total deterioration) or "1" (poor condition). During the sampling trips,
additional tombs were sampled due to unique conditions, color or where spots of
stucco deterioration made the taking of a sample possible on a tomb where the stucco
condition had been rated higher than a " 1". For most tombs, less than 50 grams were
sampled. For those tombs identified for gravimetric analysis and water vapor
transmission (WVT) testing, approximately 150 gram samples were taken so that a full
5.3 mm disc could be prepared for the WVT test. Where there were muhiple layers of
stucco, as in an original stucco layer covered by a later cement layer, samples of both
layers were taken.
95 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.1.3 Mortar
In each tomb where brick samples were taken, mortar samples were also taken. An
attempt was made to retrieve unexposed interior samples that had not broken down due
to weathering, water absorption and/or biological growth.
5.2 Laboratory Analysis
5.2.1 Visual Inspection and Physical Characterization
Visual inspection and physical characterization are the most basic of the analytical
techniques. It is important to capture contextual information about the sample, such as
where it was located on the structure, the condition of the structure or region from
which the sample was taken, damage levels and locations (delamination,
disaggregation, cracking, etc.) general surface appearance, and contamination
information. For this research, a report of the target tombs was created from the
database to use in the field during sample collection to collect information quickly and
accurately. Comments and planned tests were marked and sample locations could often
be indicated on the photograph. (See Appendbc B - Sampling Record for an example of
the field comments.)
96 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
After collection, stucco samples were brushed clean with a wire brush and all loose
surface finish removed. Where possible, any remaining surface finish was removed
with a dental pick, scalpel and/or coarse grit sandpaper. Where samples contained
more than one layer of stucco, all attempts were made to separate the layers and test
each separately for moisture response, for comparison to the intact multi-layer system.
Samples were coded as to the layer color(s) and whether surface finish was still a part of
the sample. Small samples were taken of selected stucco layers and surface finishes for
later microscopy work.
Based on gross color and texture, the samples were subjectively typed into 6 groups:
1 . White Group - appeared to be the oldest, mostly crushed shell based lime
2. Tan Group - light sandy color, very porous
3 . Dark Tan Group - darker, caramel type tan, denser
4. Gray Group - more recent layers of cement based stucco
5. Combination Tan/Gray Group - muhiple layers
6. Combination Dark Tan/Gray Group - multiple layers
A later subset of White Gray Group was designated, as this type of cement layer
seemed to have very different properties fi"om the Gray Group. The broken interior of
each sample was fiirther characterized by Munsell Soil Charts (ASTM Dl 535-97), and
aggregate shape and size were characterized. For those samples that were to be
analyzed by acid digestion and gravimetrically, the surface texture was evaluated
97 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
further by comparison to commercial sandpaper grit sizes and sample hardness was
given a Mohs hardness scale number by using a fingernail, a scalpel and a glass slide.
The Mohs hardness scale orders 10 common minerals by hardness, numbered 1 to 10.
One's fingernail has a hardness of about 2.5, between the hardness of gypsum and
calcite; a jackknife blade is estimated at 5.5, between apatite and feldspar; and a plate
glass is about 6, or the hardness of feldspar. A 0 to 3 scale was used to rate grinding
difficulty and resistance to break, to further characterize hardness. See Appendix C -
Experimental Data for a summary of the stucco characterization.
The bedding mortar samples were brushed lightly to remove loose fi-agments and
evidence of biological growth. Samples were color typed with the Munsell Soil Charts
(ASTM D 153 5-97), and assessed for hardness using the 0 to 3 scale of grinding
difficuhy and resistance to break, as described above. See Appendix C - Experimental
Data for a summary of the mortar characterization.
The brick samples were scrubbed lightly to clean off dirt and biological growth, then
weighed and measured in the length, depth and height dimensions. An additional 41
measurements were made on bricks still intact in tombs during the March, 2002, field
trip to St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, and were added to the analysis of brick sizes.
9S Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Using the reference by
Gurcke, Bricks and
Brickmaking: A
Handbook for Historical
Archaeology, the
sampled bricks were
characterized by color
and texture, the marks on
the struck face, the evidence of lips formed on the edges, and any additional marks
showing that the bricks were sand or water struck. '^^ Each brick was marked for
cutting and cut with a water cooled Plasplug Diamond Wheel Tile Cutter into 6 or
more pieces (-2.5" x 3.5" x 1.5") for further tests.
Fig. 5.2 A handmade brick evidenced by the Up formed when brick
was removed from its mold before being fully dry.
the "strike " across the wet clay. The strike
was usually a straight edge of wood
" Karl Gurcke. Bricks and Brickmaking: A Handbook for Historical Archaeology. (Moscow. ID:
University of Idaho Press. 1987).
99
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
• N
\
^
)
I
•s^iitsm
,.-J
Fig. 5.5 Examples of brick samples. The top six samples are River
brick which tend to be red to reddish orange. The bottom six samples
are Lake brick which are tan to pink and usually have spots of burnt
impurities
100
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.2.2 Moisture Absorption by Total Immersion
Testing methodology for moisture absorption
by total immersion was adapted from several
sources. For the stucco samples, a target
size of 3.5 cm x 3.5 cm and desired weight of
20 grams was selected. Due to the small
quantity of many of the samples, weights
ranged from a low of 3.9 g to a high of 30.5 g.
The average dry weight was 12.7 g. Each
sample of stucco was placed in an individually
weighed aluminum pan and 1 5 small sample
pans were placed in a large disposable
aluminum tray. The 1 19 samples were divided into 8 trays of 13-16 samples each, so
that each test series allowed enough time for all samples to be weighed before the next
timed weighing cycle was scheduled. Each tray of samples was air-dried at 68-70° F
and 30-35% RH. The samples were then dried for 12 or more hours at 83 °C, until
sample weights between weighings were constant within ±0. 1%.
Fig. 5. 6 Samples of stucco during total
immersion test.
'"^ ASTM C97-83 Standard Test Methods for Absorption and Bulk-Specific Gravit\' of Dimension Stone;
Jeanne Marie Teutonico. "Water Absorption by Total Immersioa" A Lahoraton- Manual for Architectural
Conservators, (Rome: ICCROM. 1988), 35. NORMAL 7/81. Draft Translation by E. Charola; Ernesto
Borrelli. Porosity: .4RC Laboratory Handbook Volume 2/99. (Rome: ICCROM. 1999). 10.
lOJ
Afialysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The dry weight, Mo, of each sample was recorded and distilled water was added to fill
each pan, totally submerging the stucco sample. The samples were removed fi^om the
water, blotted dry and weighed on an Ohaus Scout 11 scale with ± 0. 1 g error at given
intervals until the difference between two successive weighings at a 24 hour interval
was less than 1% of the dry weight, and less than 0. 1% of the total moisture absorption.
At the end of the immersion time, the final saturated weight, Msat, was recorded. The
percent of moisture absorbed by total immersion at atmospheric pressure, also called
the Imbibition Capacity, was calculated:
IC = (MsAT-Mo)/Mox 100
The mass of the pores, Mp, was calculated:
Mp = Msat - Mo
Since the density of water is 1 g/cm^ at 24 °C, the mass of the pores, MpCan be
considered to be the open pore volume, Vp. Each sample was then placed in a small
beaker filled with 60 ml of distilled water. The amount of water displaced, or the apparent
volume Va, was used to estimate the percent open porosity of each stucco sample.
% Open Porosity = % Voids = VpA'a x 100
To obtain an estimate of the water absorption coefficient, or the rate at which the
samples would have absorbed through capillary action, the slope of the initial section
of the absorption curve was calculated.
102 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The samples were then dried at 83°C until they reached constant weight and re-
weighed. The first 106 samples were then tested for surface absorption by dropping 1
ml drop of de-ionized water onto the surface and measuring the time required for the
drop to be fully absorbed. The results were very erratic, depending on where the drop
was placed on the irregular stucco surfaces, and were not used for analysis.
The wet and dry condition of each sample was photographed and any discoloration of
water or disaggregation of sample was recorded. The % Moisture Absorption, %
Porosity, and initial slope resuhs for all samples and sample comments are presented in
Appendix C - Experimental Data.
MsAT by Stucco Group - Total Immersion
Data Calculated from Samples without SF
fiBS
to
DWhite nTan aDarh Tan aTan/Gray nGray sDkTan/Gr
Porosity by Stucco Group
Estimated by Water Displacement Method
While Tan Dar1< Tan Tan/Gray Gray DkTan/Gr
Fig. 5. 7 Total saturation point average,
minimum and maximum by group.
Fig. 5.8 Average open porosity by group.
This large set of samples included a mixture of single stucco layers, multiple layers and
samples with surface finish caught between layers. Even with the many sample
irregularities, the moisture response of the White stucco samples was the greatest at almost
2 times the response of the least absorbent Gray group. The graphs above show the
103
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
average percent of moisture
gained in the fully saturated
condition of those samples
without surface finishes. The
Gray samples averaged a similar
porosity to the Dark Tan group,
showing that porosity alone does
not dictate absorbing capacity.
Average Initial Slope of Absorption by Stucco Type
Total Water Immersion Test
4.0%
35%
3 0%
2.5%
20%
1,5%
10%
0 5%
I
I 1.39% I
■ 1
Tan/Gray
Gray
Fig. 5.9 Average initial slope of absorption by group.
The water absorption by total immersion test provides an indication of the total amount of
moisture that a material can hold. Figure 5.9 shows the initial slope of the curve of Mt vs.
time. It clearly shows differences in the initial capillary absorption properties, or the suction
power, between materials. In the case of the 4 stucco color groups, the differences followed
the pattern seen in the imbibition capacity results. The White group averaged 2.5 times the
absorption of the Gray group.
Most of the mortar samples were less than 20 g, so the largest piece available was
chosen. In several cases, two small mortar samples were used for the test. The average
dry weight of the mortar samples tested was 17.6 g. Each sample of mortar was placed
in an individually weighed aluminum pan and the 15 small sample pans were placed in
104
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
a large disposable aluminum tray. The tray of samples was air-dried at 68-70°F and
between 30-35% RH. The samples were then dried for over 12 hours at 83 °C.
The dry weight of each sample was recorded and distilled water was added to fill each
pan, totally submerging the sample. The samples were removed fi^om the water,
blotted dry and weighed on an Ohaus Scout II scale with ± 0. 1 g error at the times used
for the stucco total immersion test. The 6 day cycle that had fully saturated the stucco
samples was not long enough for the mortar samples, which took 8 days to reach
constant weight saturation. At the end of the immersion time, the final saturated
weight, MsAT, was recorded. The samples that were not too soft for handling were
tested for open porosity. The samples were dried to constant weight and re- weighed.
The final dry weight was used for all calculations, as many of the mortar samples
experienced disintegration during the immersion in water. The percent of moisture
absorbed by total immersion, percent open porosity and the initial slope were
calculated by the equations given above. See Appendix C - Experimental Data.
An interesting comparison can be made between the Msat of the interior mortar sample
and the Msat of the first layer of stucco, the layer that would normally interface with
the mortar. In all cases, the stucco layer was less capable of holding moisture than the
mortar. This difference in moisture capacity has the potential to be a positive aid in the
drying out of interior moisture, assuming the stucco layer's ability to draw moisture by
105 Atialysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
capillary action is great enough, a property that was discussed in Section 3.5 on
moisture driven decay mechanisms. The mortar samples were generally much more
delicate and more easily dissolved than the stucco samples, indicating that the mortar
would be easily damaged in a water filled joint.
MsAT Comparison between Mortar & Stucco on the Same Tomb
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
i j i ii ii j i i i i J i i J i i i i i ii
^ <^ c^' cs*^ ^"^ ^^ S- S >^ 4^ ^^ o?^ c>^ «,^^ ^^ \^^ k'v^ ^ c>- o<=^ cs^- K^*'
D Mortar Msat d Msat of 1 st Stucco Layer
Fig. 5.10 Comparison of the total saturation point for mortar and stucco of the same tomb.
For the total immersion tests on the brick samples, each was cut into pieces and 3
samples per brick, each less than 250 g, were chosen for the test. The brick samples
were air dried at 68-70° F and between 30-35% RH for 3 days. The 3 samples of
each brick were then placed in a disposable aluminum dish and dried at 83 °C for 14
J06
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
or more hours. The 21 sample sets were tested in 3 batches to allow working and
weighing time between samples. The batches were staggered by several days.
The dry weight of each brick sample
was recorded and distilled water was
added to fill each dish, totally
submerging the 3 brick samples. The
samples were removed from the water,
blotted dry and weighed at given
F,g. 5.11 Total immersion test on brick xTA^ry^As until the difference between
two successive weighings at a 24 hour interval was less than 1% of the dry weight, and
less than 0. 1% of the total moisture absorption. The cycle took 16 days. All weights
were made with an ACB 300 scale with ± 0.01 g error. At the end of the immersion
time of 16 days, the final weight, Msat was recorded. The mass of the pores was
calculated by the equations given above and the % open porosity was estimated by the
amount of water displaced when the sample was placed in a large beaker filled with
550 or 700 m of distilled water, depending on the sample size.
An assessment was made of the sediment dissolved fi-om the brick during immersion.
A disintegration dating scale was used with a rating of "1 = Minimal amount of
dissolving clays" to "5 = Large amount of dissolving clays." For each brick, the 3
107
Analysis d- Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
sample weights, Msat, % water absorption and % open porosity were averaged and the
results are presented in Appendix C - Experimental Data.
5.2.3 Additional Tests on Intact Bricks
Before the intact bricks were cut up for the total immersion testing described above,
several were tested for surface water permeability through the use of RILEM induction
tubes. ^^'* Both types of RILEM tubes were tried. The tube designed for testing of
vertical surfaces simulates the action of wind-driven rain. The one designed for
horizontal surfaces simulates ground water rising through the base, or falling water on
the structure top or other exposed surfaces.
During the Survey in March, 2001, this test was attempted on several tombs with the
bricks in situ. It was not successfiil as the water absorbed too quickly to measure, or
the seals would not hold. It was thought that the test could be more successful on
sample bricks under controlled laboratory conditions. Several brick samples were
chosen and scrubbed clean of loose dirt and biological growth. Sealant putty was
warmed slightly, rolled into a thick strand and applied to the RILEM tube. The tube
was then adhered to the brick surface in the horizontal or vertical mode, depending on
'^'' Gale, Frances. •'Measurement of Water Absorptioa" APT Bulletin Vol. 21 No. 3-4, (1989): 8-9;
RILEM International Symposium on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments:
Experimental Methods (Test No. II.4).
108 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
the test, in a location that was free of stucco or mortar remnants. De-ionized water was
added to the tube and an attempt was made to measure the water absorbed by the brick.
In all cases, the resuhs were too erratic to use, with no test repetition yielding
consistent results. Generally, on the soft river bricks, 5 ml of water was absorbed
within a minute. The harder lake bricks took about 2 -3 minutes to absorb the 5 ml of
water. In addition, attempts were made to test the stucco covered brick areas.
However, the seal would not hold on the rough surfaces. It was concluded that this test
would not be useful for characterizing the bricks in this research.
An attempt was made to test the
capillary rise rates on the individual
bricks. '^^ Several brick samples were
chosen and scrubbed clean of loose dirt
J and biological growth. The selected
bricks were stood on end on glass rods
Vv, in a container and de-ionized water was
added to a level of 1 cm above the brick
edge. Measurements were taken on
Fig. 5.12 Capillarv rise attempt on a full brick..
The brick wet out beneath the stucco. The stucco each of the brick faces every minute for
remained drv.
NORMAL 1 1/85 Capillary Water Absorption and Capillary Absorption Coefficient; RILEM
International Symposium on the Deterioration and Protection of Stone Monuments: Experimental
Methods (Test No. 11.4).
109
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
the first 5 minutes, every 5 minutes until 30 minutes had passed, and then every 30
minutes until the brick was flilly wet. These results were also assessed to be erratic,
but illustrative of the manner in which bricks can completely wet out beneath a seemingly
dry stucco layer. Only 6 bricks were tried and it was decided that this test method also was
not useful for these materials.
5.2.4 Development of Test Plan for Further Analysis
The physical characterization and total immersion water absorption tests were selected
as the means to develop data that would allow for the classification of such a large
sample universe into groups that merited further testing. The tests described in the
following sections were not run on all samples. Representative samples were chosen to
determine the properties of the individual stucco and brick types, and to show the
combined impacts of stucco on brick, the differing stucco layers upon each other, and
stucco with surface finishes. Many of the tombs chosen for analysis included the 18
for which the full system of stucco, brick and mortar were available. For the remainder
of the samples required, an important criterion was the availability of large enough
samples to yield both the 5.3 mm disc needed for the MVT test and at least 20 g for the
acid digestion and gravimetric analysis. Finally, 3 tombs, #09, #600 and #1200, that
clearly illustrated material incompatibilities both in the field and in the initial testing
phase, were chosen for advanced analytical work, including Thin-Section Polarized
110 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
Light Microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Differential
Thermal Analysis. The full sampling plan can be reviewed in Appendix C.
5.2.5 Water Vapor Transmission
The moisture or water vapor transmission rate (MVT or WVT), is a property of a
material that is useful in evaluating its permeability to moisture vapor. It is defined by
ASTM as "the steady water vapor flow in unit time through unit area of a body, normal
to specific parallel surfaces, under specific conditions of temperature and humidity at
each surface." '^^ A high WVT allows a material to adjust more rapidly, when adhered
to a damper material, such as the situation in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, where the interior
bricks can become wet fi-om rising damp. Field inspection has verified that the stucco
layers are often dry over damp bricks, and the ability of the stucco to transmit moisture
vapor was thought to aid in the elimination of the ulterior dampness.
Stucco - The Water Method of ASTM E 96-95 was adapted for use in this research.
Due to the availability of samples, only one sample for each tomb condition was
prepared instead of the 3 specified in the test method. The samples were somewhat
irregular and care was taken to cut the sample fi-om the most uniformly thick section of
126
' ASTM E 96-95 Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials; Judith Jacob
and Norman R. Weiss, "Water Vapor Transmission: Mortars and Pamt" APT BuHetin Vol XXI No 3&4
(1989): 62-70: NORMAL 21/85; ASTM definitions are fomid in Terminology' C 168.
JIJ Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
the material. Representative samples were chosen from each of the stucco color groups
and an attempt was made to create several comparison pairs showing the same stucco
with and without surface finish. For Tombs #09, #200 and #600, tombs for which the
most analytical testing was conducted, samples of the gray stucco layered over the
original stucco were tested against one of the separated layers.
Thickness to VWT Correlation
All Stucco Samples without Surface Finish
y=0.003x + 2.0883
'■■^:^^'^^-
WVT (g/daym^)
The samples differed
widely in thickness.
However, it was
determined that thickness
differences would not
invalidate the test once
the samples reached
Fig. 5.13 Thickness to mT correlation. equilibrium in the test
chamber. The WVT values were calculated for a 7 day period after the samples
reached equilibrium after at least 10 days. The final WVT resuhs showed a positive
correlation with sample thickness, with the thicker samples having a greater ability to
transmit water vapor. This correlation indicated that the differences were due to the
stucco type, not thickness. Had the thickness differences caused WVT to decline with
increasing thickness, the samples would have required further cutting to ensure that all
samples were of similar thickness.
112
Analysis cfe Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Polyethylene beakers (100ml) with a 5.5 cm top opening and a 2 cm ledge were chosen
for the test containers. Stucco discs were cut to 5. 1-5.4 cm diameter. The discs were
dried at 83 °C for 12 hours, then cooled in a desiccator and weighed. During this time,
the 10 gallon fish tank to be used as the desiccator was outfitted with wire shelves, and
trays of anhydrous calcium sulfate (DRIERITE®). The tank was sealed with wide
impermeable transparent tape to bring the interior to dry conditions before the start of
the test. A combination thermometer and hygrometer was placed in the tank for
temperature and humidity readings. The dried samples were wrapped tightly with
electrical tape. The beakers were labeled and filled with 60 ml of distilled water,
which brought the water level to within Va ± 'A in of the bottom of the sample.
Fig. 5.14 Stucco sample preparation for HIT test.
Each sample was placed in
its marked beaker and
mehed paraffin wax was
"S applied around the edge
with an eyedropper to seal
the assembly. The full test
chamber of sample, tape,
paraffin wax, beaker and
water was weighed. The
samples were placed in the
JJ3
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
tank on elevated wire shelves over the trays of anhydrous calcium sulfate desiccant. The
samples were spaced to allow good airflow between all samples. The top of the tank was
sealed with wide impermeable tape.
Brick -The Water Method of ASTM E 96-95 was adapted for use in this research.
Due to the minimal availability of samples, only one sample for each tomb condition
was prepared instead of the 3 specified in the test method. Brick cubes were cut with a
diamond edge, water cooled saw to approximately 1.9 cm by 3.5 cm by 3.5 cm. This
allowed the brick cubes to inset into the polyethylene beaker and allow a plastic shield
to rest on the brick braced by the beaker top's ledge. Representative samples were cut
from each of the sampled bricks and, where possible, separate samples were prepared
to compare the bare brick to the same brick with the adhered layer of stucco.
Polyethylene beakers (100ml) with a 5.5 cm top opening and a 2 cm ledge were chosen
as the test containers. Polyethylene discs were cut to 5.4 cm diameter and a window of
approximately 2.4 cm by 2.4 cm was cut to expose the brick surface. The brick samples
were dried at 83 °C for 12 hours, then cooled in a desiccator and weighed. During this
time, the 10 gallon tank to be used was prepared as described above for the stucco samples.
JJ-^ Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The dried samples were wrapped tightly with electrical tape. The beakers were labeled and
filled with 50 ml of distilled water which brought the water level to within V* ± V* in of the
bottom of the sample. Each sample was placed in its marked beaker, the plastic shield was
placed on top of the sample and mehed paraffin wax was applied around the edge of the
shield and within the exposure window with an eyedropper to seal the assembly. The
measurements of the exposed window were taken so that the exposure area could be
calculated. The fiill test chamber of sample, tape, paraffin wax, beaker and water was
weighed. The samples were placed in the 10 gallon fish tank on elevated wire shelves over
the trays of anhydrous
calcium sulfate
desiccant. The samples
I were spaced to allow
good airflow between all
samples. The top of the
^^ tank was sealed.
Fig. 5.15 Brick cubes for WIT test.
WIT Caladations - The stucco and brick samples were run in two separate batches in
early March, 2002, and then after new samples were obtained in early April, 2002. For
the first run, the weights of the total assemblies were taken every 24 hours. A 7-day
period after the 10* day was chosen for calculations, after it was assured that all
115
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
samples were at an equilibrium rate of moisture transmission. For the second run, the
weights were taken less frequently, and a 7-day period was also chosen after the
samples had been exposed for 10 days. For both runs, the samples stayed in the tanks
for over 1 8 days. Any sample that tipped over, broke the seal or cracked was
eliminated. The tank conditions were kept at between 69-71 °C and 22-30% RH, All
weights were made with an ACB 300 balance with a ±0.01 g error. Readings of weight
change rates were very consistent during the testing cycle as can be seen in the curves of
daily weight loss % of all the brick samples in Figure 5.16 below.
Daily Weight Loss % Readings - Brick Samples
Days
13-01
107-01
09-04X
548-0 IX
-579-03
13-01X
146-01
251-01
558-02
- 579-03X
45-02 -^ 89-04
1 46-01 X ^.^120-01
259-01 259-02
558-03X 573-01
593-02 A 1200-05
89-04X
1 20-01 X
334-01
573-01 X
1200-06
92-02X
09-04
548-01
579-02
-BrkCTRL
Fig. 5. 16 15 daily weight loss % readings - Brick samples.
116
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The water vapor transmission (WVT) is calculated as follows:
G
WVT
tA
Where G = weight change (grams)
t = time (hours)
A = test area (cm'^)
WVT = rate of water vapor transmission, g/(h cm^)
Calculations were also made for g/day m^. See Appendix C for a summary chart of the
experimental results.
Water Vapor Transmission - Stucco Samples
WVT (g/day*m^)
200
150
100
50
AUUl
nrnffjliiiiiiiiiiiiii
£• n a O ra o
Fig 5.17 Water vapor transmission results for stucco samples.
Generally, the stucco samples with surface finish (modern) were higher in WVT than
had been expected, but were still consistently lower than the same or similar sample
tested without surface finish. In the sample of Tomb #548 tested with and without a
117
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
modern surface finish, the modem finish reduced the WVT of the stucco by almost
40%. Yet in Tomb #89, where the Dark Tan stucco is still covered with thick remnants
of a permeable lime based surface finish, the difference between WVT results was
insignificant, or within experimental error.
Table 2
Water Vapor Transmission Results for Specific Stucco Samples
Tested With and Without Surface Finish (SF)
Wt.
Test
Change
Thickness
Area
Diameter
WVT
Samples
Type
Finish
(g)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
g/day*m^
548-02
Tan
ModSF
1.64
0.790
22.05
5.2
106
548-04X
Tan
NoSF
2.45
2.780
21.23
5.2
165
89-02
DkTan
LimeSF
1.95
0.709
20.42
5.1
136
89-X
DkTan
NoSF
1.99
4.130
21.23
5.2
134
The averages for the non-SF samples, when separated into color groups and by the
different brick types, clearly showed the Gray (cement) Group stucco to have the
lowest WVT and the very soft, porous River brick to have the highest WVT. According to
these results, in a 2.5 by 3 meter wall of lake brick covered by Gray stucco, the stucco
would only allow 435 g of the 4.5 kg of moisture vapor that the lake brick could pass.
Figure 5.18 shows the progression of WVT resuhs fi^om the least permeable to the
most. A layer of Tan stucco is 3 times more capable of passing moisture vapor than a
layer of Gray stucco. All of the brick with stucco samples had either Tan or Dark Tan
stucco. The bare bricks are the most permeable and when covered with stucco, they
loose approximately half their ability to pass moisture vapor.
118 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Water Vapor Transmission
WVT (g/day*m^)
800
700
HHI
N
1
-^ 600
^
E 500
>>
•S 400
300
S 200
331
100
■*■
i..i
Hl45^^
181
■A^^
0
376 11^602 1^71 2 1
Gray
White
DkTan
Tan
Lake River Bare Lake Bare River
Brick ■'nI Brick w/ Brick Brick
Stucco Stucco
Fig. 5. 18 Water vapor transmission results for brick samples.
5,2.6 Capillary Absorption
The methodology for capillary absorption and drying rates was adapted from the
NORMAL and RILEM published test methods, the work of Massari and Massari and
Vos, and the laboratory developed by E. Charola.'^'' After the conclusion of the MVT
test, the 35 stucco discs and 3 1 brick cubes were dried for 24 hours at 83 °C and
weighed on the ACB 300 scale to ±0.01g. The stucco discs were set on edge in open
wire baskets adapted with tape spacers to hold the samples upright and separated
'^ NORMAL 1 1/85. Draft translation by E. Charola; RILEM Test No 11.6; Massari and Massari. 2 1 -
31;Vos. "Water Absorption and Drying of Materials." 679-694, Vos. "Moisture in Monuments." 147-
153. Charola. Advanced Conservation Science Laboratory "Water Absorption and Drying Behavior."
119
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
through the testing. The baskets were placed on glass rods in a large polyethylene
container and distilled water was added so that only the bottom 1 cm of the disc
contacted the water. The contact surface arc was determined to be 4.5 cm, so the
contact surface area of each disc edge was calculated using the 4.5 cm arc and the
sample thickness. Calculations were made for density, surface area, volume, and
contact area for the stucco discs and the brick cubes. The brick cubes were placed
directly on glass rods in a separate polyethylene container. For those brick cubes that
contained stucco, the stucco surface was positioned at the side of the sample, so that
capillary water rise would occur as it would on a tomb wall. Distilled water was added
so that only the bottom 1 cm of the cube contacted the water. The contact surface area
used was the calculation of the area of the cube face contacting the water.
At predetermined times, samples were removed, blotted dry and weighed throughout
the 9 day test. The containers were kept sealed between weighings to keep the
chambers at 100% RH, and as needed, distilled water was added to keep the samples in
contact with the water.
After all samples had reached a constant capillary absorption state, Wcap, where the
differences in moisture absorption between weighings were all less than 0. 1%, the
samples were fully immersed in distilled water for another 24 hours and then weighed
120 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
for the fully saturated weight, Msat- The differences between Msat and Wcap were
small, as could be expected for such porous materials/^^
Fig. 5.19 Stucco discs racked in water for capillary
absorption test.
Fig 5.20 SamplcJnji)FroinhU275, Gray
Group stucco showing salts from the stucco
forming at the interface of brick skin during
the capillary absorption test.
The amount of water absorbed per unit surface, Mi (g/cm^) was calculated and plotted
against the square root of time to create the capillary absorption curves for each sample.
The initial straight part of the curves was used to calculate the capillary absorption
coefficient, which is the slope of that part of the curve, expressed in g/cm^ sec °^.
Calculations were made to determine the individual capillary absorption rates by sample and
the results were then grouped and averaged to compare data between stucco and brick types.
Massari and Massari. 22-25.
121
Analysis c?- Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
0200-04, 0200-05 Capillary Absorption Curves
0.24
o
I 020
3
in
= 0.16
3 ,J~
1 I 0.12
•D a
a —
€ 008
o
in
2 0.04
«
S 0.00
200-04. Dk Tan v=^
r
200-05, Gray y :: O.OOOSx * 0.0004
Capillary Absorption Coefficients = .0018 vs .0008 g/cm^ sec °
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Square root of Time (sec)
^
Fig. 5.21 Capillary absorption cur\>es.
The total water absorbed, or the Imbibition Capacity, was calculated:
(MsAT - MDRY)/Mi>y X 100 = Imbibition Capacity %
This test confirmed the results from the total immersion tests of both stucco and brick
groups. The White group stucco is almost as absorbent as the River brick, and slightly
more absorbent than the Lake brick. The Gray group is less than half as absorbent as are
the bricks. The capillary absorption coefficient calculated for these samples provides an
mdication of the pulling power of each group when placed in contact with water through
rising damp or rainfall. All stucco groups have much lower capillary absorption
coefficient values, which would be beneficial in their exterior protection role. The high
coefficients for the brick samples are consistent with the observed condition of damp
interior bricks resulting from capillary action (rising damp).
122
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Table 3
Summary Results from Capillary Absorption Test
Stucco Without Surface Finish, Bare Brick
Sample Type
Cap. Absorp Coeff.
g/cm2 sec"'
Imbibition Capacity %
Gray Stucco
0.0019
9.04%
WhiteGray Stucco
0.0023
1 1 .05%
DkTan Stucco
0.0024
11.73%
Tan Stucco
0,0025
12.21%
White Stucco
0.0052
23.02%
Lake Brick
0.0341
18.18%
River Brick
0.0471
23.93%
5.2.7 Drying Curves and Drying Rates
The methodology for the determination of drying rates was adapted from the
NORMAL and RILEM published test methods, the work of Massari and Massari and
Vos, and the laboratory developed by E. Charola.'^^ The fully saturated samples of
stucco and brick were removed from the water. The stucco samples were placed in the
dry open wire baskets adapted with tape spacers, and the brick cubes were placed on
dry glass rod supports and weighed at predetermined times. The sample containers
ensured a draft free environment. All weights were made on the ACB 300 balance at ±0.01
- NORMAL 29/88. Draft translation by E. Charola; RDLEM Test No n.5; Massari and Massari. 21-
31:Vos. "Water Absorption and Drying of Materials." 679-694. Charola. Advanced Conservation
Science Laboratory "Water Absorption and Drying Beha\ior."
J23
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOVIS CEMETERY NO. 1
g accuracy. The stucco samples were dried for 3.5 days and the brick samples for 4.5 days.
After the drying period, the samples were dried at 83 °C for 12 hours and re-weighed.
Using the data from the drying test, drying rates were calculated and curves were
developed to determine the critical water content (*Fc). None of the curves graphed with
the exact shape and precision of those seen in the Vos, Massari and Massari and other
published test methodology literature. '^° According to RILEM Test No. n.5, multi-
dimensional evaporation, form of the sample, initial water content, material properties and
boundary conditions can all affect the shape of the curve. '^' However, the curves do show
the distinct drying phases and the bending point and can be used to describe differences
between materials.
For Tomb #600, the Tan stucco layer alone was compared to stucco containing a layer
of Gray stucco over the older Tan stucco, as is currently on the tomb. In both curves,
the initial decrease in rate of drying occurs during the first 30 minutes, when the exterior
adsorbed water of the very wet outer surface evaporates. In the single layer Tan stucco, the
primary diffusion phase is relatively flat and continues until only 0.017 g/cm^ of moisture
is left in the sample.
'^*^ The graphs referenced do not include a sharp cune change at the initiation of the test. Those tests
started with samples at the nia.\imum point reached through capillary absorption, as compared to this
research which started measurement of the drying curve at the saturation point after total immersioa
'^' RILEM No II.5. p 2.
124 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
600-04 Tan Layer, Drying Rate
Amount of Moisture Lost per Unit Time vs. Moisture Content
0.200
ST 0.180
? 0.160
« 0.140
5 0.120
I 0.100
5 0.080
o
S 0.060
;S 0.040
« 0.020
0.000
Critical moisture content U'c=.017g/em^
0.060 0.050 0.040 0.030 0 020
Moisture Content (M* g/cm')
0010
Fig. 5.22 Drying rate cun'e identifies the critical moisture content point.
0 000
600-02 Tan-Gray Combo, Drying Rate
Amount of Moisture Lost per Unit Time vs. Moisture Content
0.120
0.100
0.080
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
■ Critical moisture content *Pc=.045g/cm^
0060 0050 0040 0 030 0 020
Moisture Content (^> g/cm')
0.010
0.000
5.23 Drying rate cun'e for a combination sample.
125
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
The combination sample is much more erratic, which can be explained by the differential
evaporation happening on the two sides of the sample. The very high initial rates might
also represent the Tan layer pulling moisture from the Gray layer. The critical moisture
point of the system is high at .045 g/m^. On the tomb, the Gray layer would restrict the
ability of the brick and Tan layer to dry, keeping the inner materials damp longer than the
Tan layer alone.
Table 4
Summary Results from Drying Rates
Stucco Without Surface Finish, Bare Brick
Critical Moisture
Critical Moisture
Sample Type
Content
Content %
Gray Stucco
0.0364
82.57%
WhiteGray Stucco
0.0380
80.06%
Dklan Stucco
0.0272
51 .72%
Tan Stucco
0.0309
53.86%
White Stucco
0.0215
33.68%
Lake Brick
0.1532
48.51%
River Brick
0.0313
7.60%
126
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
5.2.8 Acid Soluble Analysis & Gravimetric Analysis
The literature includes multiple articles describing the basic mortar analysis
techniques. '^^ Most rely on a crushed sample, digested in acid, filtered, with a weight
calculation made for the fines, percent soluble and percent insoluble (aggregate)
fi"actions. The insoluble fi^action is then sieved through multiple screens to separate the
aggregate by size. Each of these fi^actions can then be further analyzed by microscopy
or more advanced chemical analyses. Such basic methodology yields much
information on the mixture and is particularly helpfijl in preparing replacement mortars
that will be similar in color, texture and component ratios. The method does not allow
an exact accounting of the original binder to aggregate ratio, the methods used for
mixing and placing the mortar, the rate of drying or the mineralogical identification of
binder and aggregate. Calcareous binders, some silicates and clay impurities can react
with hydrochloric acid, skewing the results and obscuring the identification of the
binder. Petrographic analysis with the microscope and X-Ray diffraction are often
used for mineralogical identification, and the acid digestion solute can be further
analyzed by acid/base titration, Infra-Red spectroscopy or other analytical techniques.
'^^ ASTM C136-84a Standard Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates; Teutonico.
113-1 15: E. Blaine. 'Tests for the Analysis of Mortar Samples." APT Bulletin Vol. VI No. 1 (1974): 68-73;
Matero. ACS Laboraton,^ E.xperiment #9. 'Mortar Analysis. Simple Method."
127 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
There are many articles listed in the Bibliography that present work on methodology to
simplify or make the basic mortar analysis technique more informative. For this research,
the general properties and any differences between the 4 stucco types and the mortar
were the reasons for mortar analysis, and only a few samples were fiirther analyzed
microscopically and through XRD, SEM and TGA. The "Simple Method of Mortar
Analysis" was used, adapted from instructions in the ARC: A Laboratory Manual for
Architectural Conservators. An example of the mortar analysis worksheet developed
to document all observations and results gathered during the analysis is included in
Appendix C.
The samples chosen for analysis were crushed finely with a mortar and pestle, and then
dried in a 100°C oven for 24 hours. The target size for the sample was 50 g, however,
due to availability, most samples only yielded 20-30 g for testing. Samples were each
characterized for color using the Munsell Soil Charts (ASTM Dl 535-97), texture and
hardness. No foreign organic matter (beyond biological growth) was detected in any of
the samples. Where a sample contained crushed shell, brick or charcoal, it was noted.
The dry sample to be digested in acid was weighed, then placed in a 600ml beaker and
moistened with water. Hydrochloric acid at 4M concentration was slowly added to the
beaker and the type, intensity and bubbling of the reaction was recorded using a 0 to 3
scale, with 3 being most aggressive, or largest, long lasting bubbles. More acid was
128 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
added over an 8 hour period of digestion until no further reaction was evident. After 8
hours, the acid digestion solution was carefiilly diluted with distilled water and the
liquid was stirred to levitate the fine particles, separating them fi-om the heavier or
larger particles at the bottom of the beaker. The solution was poured into a volumetric
flask through a funnel with weighed filter paper. The coarse fraction was washed
numerous times to ensure that all acid and fines were separated. The color of the
filtrate was noted.
The fines and filter paper were dried for 24 hours and weighed. The coarse fraction
was allowed to dry in the beaker overnight, then was transferred to a metal weighing
dish and dried for 12 hours and weighed. The weight of the fine and coarse fi^actions
were subtracted from the initial dry weight to calculate the weight of the acid soluble
fraction and all fi^actions were expressed as a w/w%. Using volumetric conversion
estimates by Cliver, an estimate was also made of the v/v% to determine original
mixing ratios. ^^^ The color of the fines was characterized by Munsell Soil Charts
(ASTMD1535-97).
The coarse fraction was sieved in a standard soil analysis sieve set with 7 screens
(2.36mm, 1,18mm, 600|xm, 300 ^im, 150 |im, 75 |am and <75 ^m.) according to ASTM
C136-84a. The amount collected in each screen was weighed and calculations and
Cliver. 70.
129 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
graphs were made showing the distribution of the aggregate in the coarse fraction by
percentage and by cumulative percent retained. The amount of aggregate that
remained in the <75 ^m pan was then subtracted from the coarse fraction and added to
the fines fraction. The sieved aggregate was inspected and photographed with the
Reflected Light, Nikon SMZ-U Microscope and Nikon AFX n A Camera at 5X and the
images were included in the Mortar Analysis Worksheet.
In Figure 5.24 below, the weight percent distribution of Fine, Coarse and Acid Soluble
fractions are compared for the 5 stucco groups and the mortar. The mortar samples had
significantly higher fines fractions than did the stucco samples and the fines were
generally a Munsell lOYR or 7. SYR with a reddish clay or fine silt appearance.
Gravimetric Analysis - Weight %
30 Stucco Samples, 20 Mortar Samples
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
r
r
r
r
~
r
l^w
■ 1
White (4) Tan (8) DkTan(6) Gray(9) WhiteGr(3) All Shell
Mortar(20) Mortar(8)
□ Avg. Fines % DAyg Agg. % DAvg Acid Sol %
Fig. 5.24 Weight % averages for fine, course and acid soluble fractions by group.
130
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The mortar samples varied widely in reaction aggressiveness and in mineralogical
components in the coarse fraction, A group of 8 samples appeared to be poorly
digested because of a "shell" of matte white material that coats the particles, often in all
fractions. An example of this can be seen in Figures 5,25 and 5.26. These samples all
had very aggressive reactions and large long lasting foam. These samples have a much
lower aggregate content than do the other mortars and all stucco samples tested.
Fig. 5.25 09-03 Mortar, Sieve Fraction J,
2 and 3. 5x magnification.
Fig. 5.26 45-03 Mortar, Sieve Fraction 1,
2 and 3. 5x magnification.
Gravimetric Analysis Results
\
Mortar DifFerences
50 00% ,
4500%
4000%
35. OCA
^
44%
40%
1
34%
31%
2000%
26%
25%
In J^ ^
5 00% ^^M
MHi
m
A
1 M<x1art20) Shell Mortar
8)
-'
|aA>^.
Fines %
3A>fl Agg % c
Avg Acid
Sol%
Fig. 5.27 Mortar type dififerences - Gravimetric analysis results.
131
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The aggregate fractions in the mortar samples showed a definite skew to the finer
aggregate sizes with the shell group showing the most dramatic skew to 75|jxn. The
stucco groups, in comparison, were all well sorted and the distribution in aggregate size
was very similar between stucco groups, with the Tan and Dark Tan groups having the
closest distribution around 300 ^un.
Gravimetric Analysis Results
Aggregate % Retained
2 36mm 118mm SOOpm 300\im ISOtJm TSpm
<75pm
♦ White (4)
— I — WhGray Stucco ■
Tan (8)
-All Mortar
DkTan(6)
Shell Mortar
-Gray (9)
Fig. 5.28
Aggregate analysis,
% retained
The fact that the aggregate becomes more sub-angular in the Dark Tan and Gray group
may be an indication that hydraulic mixtures (natural cements) containing non-local
sands are being used. The local sands came originally from upriver stones, and when
deposited by the Mississippi River, were sub rounded as the result of hundreds of
millions of years of weathering and water polishing.
132
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Gravimetric Analysis Results
Aggregate % Passing
236nnm 1 18nnm eOOpm SOOpm 150pm 75jjm
<75pm
♦ White (4)
-(— WhiteGr(3)
Tan (8)
-All Mortar
DkTan(6) •
Shell Mortar
-Gray(9)
Fig. 5.29
Aggregate analysis.
Same results expressed
as % passing.
After considering the differences exhibited by the mortar samples, the samples in the
different stucco groups show much greater similarities in the distribution between
fines, coarse and acid soluble fractions. The White group, expected to be primarily
lime, had a significantly greater acid soluble fraction, while the other groups varied
only a minor amount.
The White group of 4 samples had the most aggressive reaction to the addition of acid,
with big frothy bubbles and a resultant solute of gold/yellow to light yellow. The
rounded to sub-rounded aggregate showed no signs of incomplete digestion, was
primarily of clear and yellow quartz and all fractions of all samples contained particles
of brick. There were also lustrous black particles in each fraction of each sample.
Black sand is generally quartz with iron impurities, such as ilmenite (FeTi03),
133
Afjalysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
magnitite (various iron silicates) or particles of feberite (FeN04).'^'' The sample from
the oldest wall vault, #1200, also contained dull greasy black particles, suspected to be
charcoal. Sample #200-03 was unusual in the overwhelming amount (>40%) of brick
particles and it is thought that this "patch" on the outside of one wall was an experiment
with local lore that describes added brick dust as both a colorant and hydraulic
component. The Munsell color of the fines for all other White group samples was 2. SYR
6/1 The very high ratio of acid soluble fraction to fines and aggregate to acid soluble is
distinctively different in this group from the other stucco groups.
The 8 samples from the Tan group and 6 from the Dark Tan group came both from
tombs of a single layer and from the combination tombs of a Gray layer over an earlier
layer. The Gray results are in the discussion below. The Tan group did not react with
acid as aggressively as the White Group, with only 3 of the 8 samples having a reaction
rated at "3 = Most Aggressive" and with less foaming that died down more quickly.
The solute was generally light yellow. Most of the samples were fiilly digested, and of
the few that were not, the remaining binder on the aggregate did not react to HCl when
later tested, indicating components that were not soluble. The sub-rounded aggregate
included more yellowed or cloudy appearing quartz, small amounts of clear amber to
brown particles and most fractions contained some of the particles containing iron.
Brick particles were seen in 5 of the 8 samples in small quantities and 6 of the 8
Sybil T. Paiker. ed Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, New York: McGraw Hill, 1983.
J 34 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
samples showed considerable shell particles in the finer fractions. The color of the
fines varied, particularly in darkness of shade, but all were either Munsell 7. SYR or
1 OYR and none had a gray appearance.
The Dark Tan group reacted to the addition of acid in a similar manner as the Tan
group. The solute was generally light yellow. There were 2 samples that did not fiilly
digest. When tested later with HCl, the remnants did not react. The aggregate tended to
be both sub-rounded and sub-angular and many of the fractions had dark beige clusters that
also did not react when drop tested with HCl. Brick was evident in 3 of the 6 samples, but
only in small amounts. There were more black iron containing particles than had been
seen in the Tan group. All but one of the fines were rated Munsell 7. SYR with most being
on the 7. SYR 6/x level. None had a gray appearance.
The Gray group samples were those suspected to contain modem Portland cement.
These samples reacted the least aggressively to acid digestion and 7 of the 9 samples
did not fiilly digest, 4 of which later reacted to HCl and 3 of which did not. The solute
was generally light yellow to greenish yellow and 2 of the samples had green frothy
bubbles. The primarily quartz aggregate was sub-rounded and sub-angular, and
contained bright orange and shiny yellow sub-angular particles. There were also light
gray to bluish gray particles in both lustrous and dull forms and the finer fractions often
contained many flat white crystals which were not shell and which did not react at all to
135 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
HCl. The color of the fines was predominantly gray to gray/white with 6 of the 9 samples
rated Munsell Gley 1 8/N, one at Gleyl 7/N, and the rest were one of the light grays on the
Munsell YR pages.
The White Gray group was initially included in the Gray group, but the samples were
found to differ significantly. Only 3 were tested and all reacted aggressively upon
exposure to HCl. All did not digest completely, but the remains did not react to spot
testing with HCl. The aggregate for these samples contains some of the same bright
orange and yellow particles as did the Gray group, as well as more of the black iron
containing particles in each sieve fraction. Most notable was the high level of the flat
white particles in the finer fractions. These particles did not show any bi-refringence when
tested later on the polarizing microscope and it is expected that they are china clay, often
added to white Portland cement in place of the iron oxides.
Few definitive conclusions can be made based on the results of these 30 stucco and 20
mortar samples, except that the mortars consist of a greater percentage of fines which
appear to be clays and silt. The high acid soluble fraction in the White group confirms the
high proportion of lime suspected in the binder. Both the Tan and Dark Tan groups
contained non-digested particles that may be from the burning of clay containing hydraulic
lime. There is a great diversity between samples within each group and more analysis of a
136 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
greater number of samples would be advisable to be able to fully characterize the stucco
and mortar at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1.
Table 5
Gravimetric Analysis Weight % Results
Stucco Samples (30)
Mort
ar (20)
Weight %
White
(4)
Tan
(8)
DkTan
(6)
Gray
(9)
WhGr
(3)
Ail
(20)
Shell
Type (8)
Average Fines %
8.57%
13.12%
12.97%
13.48%
12.43%
30.85%
40.41%
Average Agg. %
20.92%
54.73%
52.83%
57.55%
50.05%
43.53%
25.16%
Average AcidSol %
70.51%
32.15%
34.21%
28.96%
37.52%
25.62%
34.43%
Approx. Ratio
(w/w%)
1/2.4
/8.2
1/4.2
/2.5
1 /4
/2.6
1 /4.7
/2.1
1 /4
/3
1.2/1.7
/I
1.6/1
/1.4
Fines+ AcidSol :Agg
7.3/1
1/1.2
1 /1.1
1 /1. 3
1 /I
1.3/1
3.2/1
Average Reaction
3+
2.38
2.33
1.67
2.33
2.45
3.00
Average Bubbles
3+
2.75
2.50
1.78
2.33
2.45
3.00
% Retained
Sieve 1 - 2.36 mm
2.08%
0.20%
0.14%
0.29%
0.00%
0.74%
1 .93%
Sieve 2- 1.18 mm
4.03%
1 .58%
2.40%
4.52%
2.77%
4.23%
10.50%
Sieve 3 - 600 jim
12.73%
16.31%
19.01%
9.32%
13.24%
5.53%
9.21%
Sieve 4- 300 nm
49.71%
62.30%
61.32%
53.78%
51 .49%
24.42%
15.43%
Sieve 5 -150 ^m
21 .94%
14.52%
12.80%
25.23%
26.18%
32.69%
15.88%
Sieve 6-75 ^m
6.92%
3.83%
3.37%
5.20%
5.04%
22.65%
32.23%
Pan (7) - <75 jim
2.59%
1 .26%
0.96%
1 .66%
1 .28%
9.73%
14.83%
137
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.2.9 Calcimetry
It was planned to use the calcimeter to determine that part of the acid soluble fraction
that could be totally attributed to carbonates (C03°) which produce CO2 upon
dissolution in hydrochloric acid. The reaction that occurs is:
CaCOs + 2 HCl ^ Ca^ + 2 Cr + H2O + CO2
This can help determine whether a mortar is totally lime based or whether it includes
other hydraulic components, The clay impurities and the silicates from hydraulic lime,
natural cement and Portland cements can be partially dissolved in the acid soluble
method. The calcimeter identifies that part of the soluble fraction that is made up of
carbonates only, allowing finer differentiations to be made.
However, the calcimeter method is very prone to both equipment and operator error.
Several tests resulted in erratic resuhs, and it was decided that this test would not be
used. The methodology does have merit and should be included in any ftiture research.
To be used, it would be necessary to have more samples so that more repetitions could
be made to reduce operator error and make the data statistically reliable. According to
Teutonico, "In actual practice at ICCROM, the test has proved less reliable and
consistent than simple mortar analysis. This may be due to problems with the
instrument or with the formula and constant used for calculations."'^^
' Teutonico, 1 1 7.
138 Atjalysis d Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.2.10 Presence of Salts
Salts were not observed to be a persistent problem at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1.
However, each of the stucco samples ground for mortar analysis, and a small amount
of dissolved brick and solution from the brick total immersion test, were tested for the
presence of water soluble salts, including sulfates, chlorides, nitrites, nitrates and
carbonates. '^^
Samples were placed in 10 cc test tubes and filled half-way with distilled water and
shaken gently. After the insoluble portion of the sample had settled to the bottom of
the test tube, a small amount of liquid was poured into 3 additional 10 cc test tubes.
To analyze for sulfates (SO4'), 2 drops of 2N hydrochloric acid (HCl) and 2 drops of a
10% solution of barium chloride (BaCb) were added to the first test tube. A white
precipitate of BaS04 would indicate the presence of sulfates.
SO/ + BaCb ^ BaS04 + 2Cr
Only 4 stucco samples showed any sign of sulfates and none of the brick solutions
tested positive.
' Teutonico, 58-65; NORMAL 13/83 Determination of Total Amount of Soluble Salts.
J 39 Atiafysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
To analyze for chlorides, 2 drops of nitric acid and 2 drops of silver nitrate (AgNOs)
were added to the second test tube. A whitish-blue, gelatinous precipitate of silver
chloride (AgCl) would indicate the presence of chlorides.
Cr + AgNOs ^ AgCl + NOs'
Only 2 stucco samples showed any indication of chlorides. Of the brick solutions, 3 of
the lake bricks and 1 of the river bricks showed a slight positive indication.
To analyze for nitrites (NO2") 2 drops of dilute acetic acid (CH3COOH) and 2 drops of
Griess-Ilosvay's reagent were added to the third test tube. A pink color would indicate
the presence of nitrites.
When the solution did not turn pink, an analysis for nitrates (NO3") was run on the
same test tube. A small amount of zinc powder was added. Zinc reacts in the presence
of acetic acid to convert nitrates to nitrites, if present, and a pink color would result.
None of the samples showed the presence of nitrites, and when zinc was added, none
showed the presence of nitrates.
To analyze for carbonates, the insoluble residue in the bottom of the original test tube
was tested with 2 drops of 2N HCl. All of the stucco samples reacted positively to this
test and none of the bricks were affected. The reaction:
CaCOa + 2 HCl ^ CaCb (soluble) + H2O + CO2 (gas)
140 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The chemical spot tests for salt presence produced minimal results (except for
carbonates on the stucco). This confirmed the field observations and the tests that had
been conducted to identify salts during the Survey. However, to look more closely at
the possibility of sah
^^j-:- s a-,' ■, t »teiBEl^^^ V »i presence, another test tube
per sample was prepared to
retest the stucco samples
using indicator strips.
Merckoquant® strips were
used to test for presence of
sulfates, chlorides, nitrites
and nitrates. Again, no
Fig. 5.30 Testing for salts with Merckquant® indicator strips.
sample showed evidence of nitrites or nitrates. In the chart below a "+" for chloride
indicated 1000 mg/1 CI' and a "+-" indicated 500 mg/1 CI". Only sample #200-05(Gray)
tested at over 800 mg/1 sulfate and all others that tested positive were between 400 and
800 mg/1 sulfate. These results indicate that a small amount of salts are present to take
part in the decay mechanisms. Most of the stucco sample layers that tested positive for
sulfates are from tombs with multiple layers of stucco, where at least one of the other
layers is of cement.
141
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 6
Qualitative Analysis for Soluble Salt
Sample
Sulfates
Chlorides
Sample
Sulfates
Chlorides
White
Dark Tan
200-03
+-
+-
89-02
+-
+-
259-04
+
573-03
+-
1200-02
-1--
107-03
+-
+-
+-
Tan
200-01
+-
45-01
+-
39-02
+-
548-02
+-
+-
558-04
+-
13-01
+-
Gray
+-
600-04
+-
+-
44-01
+-
09-08
+-
581-01
+-
+-
14-01
1300-01
+-
+-
558-05
+-
600-02
+-
+-
1200-07
+-
09-07
+-
White Gray
14-02
275-02
+
39-01
-I--
+
602-02
+-
+-
200-05
+
+
1200-01
+-
+
558-07
+-
+-
5.2.11 Optical Microscopy
Reflected and transmitted microscopy are both useftil in mortar and surface finish
analysis. At the optical level of magnification, the differences in aggregate and binder
paste can be compared for color, porosity and components. In the samples prepared for
this research, the hypothesis was that the cement binder paste would appear finer with
lower porosity and that it might be possible to see areas of damage fi-om the formation
J-f2
Analysis t& Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
of expansive salts. '^^ Hydration products often can be seen as a rim around quartz on
both the cement and hydraulic lime mortar. If the mortar is hydraulic due to the
addition of pozzolans, this can often be noticed in optical microscopy, as the pozzolans
can be seen and a hydration ring is sometimes visible around the particle.
Several representative samples were prepared fi^om each of the stucco type groups. A
small chip was cut showing the area of interest and was embedded in a catalyst setting
polymer (Bioplast®). Thick sections were made with two parallel cuts with the
Buehler Isomet® low-speed diamond blade. The samples were each hand polished on
a Buehler polishing cloth with a small amount of water and 0.05 \im alumina powder
and then affixed to a glass slide with Duco® cement. Before viewing, a temporary
cover glass was attached with a drop of Stoddard's solvent.
An example of the differences that can be seen in samples by reflected light
microscopy is illustrated by Figures 5.3 1 and 5.32. Both samples are fi-om Tomb # 09,
which is an early platform tomb with a first visible date of 1822. It has been encased in
heavy cement. The cross-sections were photographed at 1 2. 5x magnification. While
not always the case, the tombs that had multiple layers generally did have a more
A. MoropouloiL A. Bakolas, and K. Bisbikou. "Physico-Chemical Adhesion and Cohesion Bonds in
Joint Mortars Imparting E>urabiUty to the Historic Structures." Construction and Building Materials 14
(2000): 35-46: K. CallebauL J. Elsen. K. Van Balen and W. Viaene. "Nineteenth Century Hydraulic
Restoration Mortars in the Saint Michael's Church (Leuven. Belgium) Natural Hydrauhc Lime or
Cement?" Cement and Concrete Research 31 (2001): 397-403.
/■/i Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
porous paste in the inner, older layer and denser matrix in the outer layer. The optical
appearance correlated with the density data developed in the capillary absorption test.
Fig. 5.21 Tan layer on Tomb #09. 12.5 x.
Fig. 5.32 Gray layer on Tomb #09. 12.5 x.
Figures 5.33 and 5.34 show the mortar from Tomb #09. In the paste, brick dust can be
seen, as can a piece of shell. The paste is a very different consistency and porosity than
either of the stucco layers.
Although each of the samples was carefully inspected at both 12.5 x and 25 x
magnification, no evidence of hydration rings or damaging salt formation could be
seen. Only one sample, seen here in Figure 5.35, showed damage between the stucco
144
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
layers. It was determined that while thick sections might be very appropriate for
surface finish analysis, they are not the best choice for micro-structure.
Fig. 5.35 Tomb #600, The black area
between the gray and tan sections of the
image is the damage detected between the
original tan and newer gray layers of
stucco. 25 X magnification.
145
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.2.12 Polarized Light Microscopy
Polarized light aids in the identification of minerals by their different crystalline
shapes, indices of refractions and configurations. Most of the studies published rely on
optical microscopy of disperse or thin sections for petrographical and mineralogical
characterization of the constituents, the different mineral phases in the paste and the
relationship between binder and aggregate.
Several representative disperse samples were prepared from each of the stucco color
groups to identify aggregate minerals. For most of the samples, the fractions for Sieve
4 and Sieve 5, 300 ^m & 150 |im, were used, as these fractions tended to contain the
most non-quartz aggregate for most of the samples. For Tombs #09, 200 and 600,
disperse samples were also prepared of the fines and these samples were also analyzed
by XRD. The samples were dispersed on a glass slide using a needle, while viewing the
dispersion under a student microscope. Once the dispersion was suitable, a round glass
cover slip was gently laid over the sample and several drops of melted resin (refractive
index of 1 .66) were touched to the side of the cover slip. Capillary action pulled the
resin under the slip to secure the sample.
Polarized light microscopy allows observation with transmitted plane polarized light
and cross-polarized light provided by a quartz halogen light source. The light rays are
146 Atiafysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
"polarized" or brought into the same propagation direction by the condenser below the
sample. The analyzer contains the second polarizing filter. When engaged, it can be
used to look at samples with the poles crossed perpendicularly, or slightly off-crossed.
Under the crossed poles, the only light and colors visible will be those that the sample
allows through based on refractive index and birefringence. The different crystalline
phases of inorganic materials can be identified by their refi'active index, amount of
birefringence, color, crystal size, fractures and shapes. Determining these properties
allows identification using resources such as the McCrone Particle Atlas.^^^
For each sample analyzed, the Becke Line was determined for selected particles. A
faint halo can be seen around particles under plain polar light. As the fine focus is
turned slightly forward, and the sample loses focus, the halo moves in the direction of
the higher refi'active index. Since the disperse samples are embedded in a medium
with a refractive index of 1.66, it can be determined whether the sample is above or
below 1 .66. The sample was then viewed under cross-polarized light and the
birefringence of the different particles was noted, as were any differences in the type of
extinction.
Walter C. McCrone and John Gustav Delly, The Particle Atlas, Vol. I Instrumentation &
Techniques (Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers. 1973). The same information has been
incorporated into a searchable CDRom published as The Partical Atlas Electronic Edition (PAE2),
copyright 1992 by MicroDataware..
147 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 5.36 Tomb #89. Particle size from 150-
SOOfim, Transmitted - plain polarized light.
25 X Magnification.
Fig. 5.37 Tomb #89, Particle size from 150-
SOOfim. Transmitted ~ crossed polarized light.
Primarily quartz, seen here as highlv bi-
refringent. 25 x Magnification..
Using this information collected on several of the aggregate particles of interest, the
Particle Atlas was consuhed. The Particle Atlas confirmed the overwhelming
presence of highly refractive quartz, seen above in the comparing plain polarized vs.
cross polarized transmitted light. The Particle Atlas was very not useful in
determining the small colored aggregate particles.
For one of the tombs. Tomb #09, a thin section slide was prepared to investigate the
total system of brick and stucco layers. A large fragment of stucco containing a piece
of brick substrate was marked for cutting and sent to an external service for thin section
preparation. The slide was cut thin enough so that it could be viewed under transmitted
polarized light. The slide was stained on one half with alizarin red which highlights any
calcite in the sample.
148
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 5.38 Block of embedded sample showing
orange colored brick (a), the original Tan stucco
layer(b) and the cement coating (c). The blue
polymer used for embedding is forced through the
pores and will show up in the thin section. This
enables easy identification of pore vs. matrix vs.
aggregate.
In Tomb # 09, there is delamination between the
stucco layers evident, as can be seen in this
sample.
1.5x magnification.
Gray (c)
an to Gray Interface
Yiginal Tan (b)
rick (a)
On the following page, photomicrographs of the original Tan group stucco are
compared to those of the Gray group stucco. On the left can be seen a clear indication
of calcite present through the staining fi-om Alazarin Red on the left sides of both
images. The right images show the same portion of the cross-section under cross
polarized light. The predominant aggregate in each sample is quartz, however, grain
size and shape is quite different.
149
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 5.39 Thin section of Tomb #09, Tan layer
Transmitted, plain polarized light, 12.5 x magn
Fig. 5.40 Thin section of Tomb #09, Tan layer
Transmitted cross polarized light, 12.5 x magn.
Fig. 5.41 Thin section of Tomb #09, Gray layer
Transmitted, plain polarized light, 12.5 x magn.
Fig. 5.42 Thin section of Tomb #09, Gray layer
Transmitted cross polarized light, 12.5 x magn.
150
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.2.13 Advanced Instmmental Analysis
Several samples were selected for advanced testing at the Laboratory for Research on
Structural Matter. '^^ It was hoped that hydraulic lime could be identified as a
component in the tan stuccos (Tomb # 09 and 600) and that moisture driven damage
products between layers could be detected. Research has been conducted on cement
vs. hydraulic lime vs. Ume and has developed several key identification aids. Lime
stucco should be primarily of calcite (CaCOa) or dolomite (MgCOs). Cements should
be dominated by the hydraulic component C3S (tricalcium silicate), while hydraulic
lime should contain predominantly C2S (dicalcium silicate) in addition to calcite
(CaCOs). Damaging salts from sulfate attack in cement such as ettringite
(C3A-3CaS04-32H20), tobermite (CasSieCO, OF, F)i8-5H20) or thaumasite
(CaC03'CaS04*CaSi03-15H20) might be detectable, and the cement crystalline phases
should be visible under SEM.
5.2.14 Scanning Electron Microscopy, EDS
Most of the research studies on historic mortars in the attached bibliography include
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) in their analysis, often coupled with EDX/EDS
(energy dispersive X-Ray micro-analysis), to examine the micro-structure of the mortar
Jim Ferris conducted and explained the significance of the SEM and EDS tests. Bill Romonow
conducted and analyzed the findings in XRD and Andrew McGhie conducted and analyzed the
TGA/DTA scans.
151 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
and study the interface between components in very high magnification. Callebut, et.
al. used SEM in backscatter mode (BSE) on polished cross-sections to identify the
different hydrauhc phases in a mortar from St. Michael's Church in Leuven, Belgium.
EDX was used to quantify the different atomic ratios of each of these phases.''^
Riccardi, et.al. used optical microscopy in the characterization of mortar samples into
groups for analysis, followed by SEM and EDX. Their images clearly show dicalcium
silicate (belite) and tricalcium silicate (alite), both well known cement phases, and the
needle-like prismatic hexagonal crystals of ettringite.'""
Scanning Electron Microscopy, or SEM, is useful to determine the micro-morphology
of materials under study. A highly focused beam of electrons irradiates the surface of a
sample, exciting the molecules of the material, which give up secondary electrons.
These are collected and computer manipulated to create a black and white image made
up of the point-by-point energy signals, resuhing in very clear images of the sample
topography. At high magnifications, clear images of the crystalline shapes can be seen.
The SEM depth of field is much greater when compared to light microscopy. The
beam of electrons is able to pass through the sample, revealing much more of a 3-
dimensional sample than is possible with a light wave, the source in the polarized light
microscopes discussed above. For building materials like stone, mortars and stucco.
'* Callebaut et al., 397-403.
' M.P. Riccardi et. al.. "Thennal. Microscopic and X-Ray Diffiaction Studies on Some Ancient
Mortars." Thermochtmica Acta 321 (1998): 207-214.
152 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
this allows the porosity and the inter-relationship of crystals and the cementatious
binding materials to be seen. An experienced user can recognize the crystal shapes and
sizes as specific compounds, or as stages of their crystalline development.
For this research, three stucco samples from the St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 project were
mounted for study. The samples were affixed to a metal "stub" using carbon coated
double-stick tape. As the samples were
bulky, they were further held in place
with putty. The putty and sample bases
were then painted with silver paint. The
carbon tape and the silver paint
provided a route for the extraneous
primary electrons to dissipate away
from the sample.
Fi<i. 5.43 Stucco samples mounted for S/l\f
analysis.
The samples were placed in a vacuum evaporation chamber (Dentron Vacuum DV-
502A) and a frill vacuum was pulled for about 10 minutes, and a very thin (500 A) layer
of carbon was vapor deposited onto the samples. The carbon also served the purpose
to draw extraneous primary electrons off the sample so that the secondary electrons
emitted from the sample made up the image with minimal noise from the primary
electrons from the beam. The samples were analyzed on a scanning electron
153
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
microscope (SEM) from Princeton Gamma Tech that can scan up to 300,000 times
magnification. These samples, however, were only scanned up to 1000 times magnification.
The test samples were placed on a small platform in the SEM by inserting them
through a vacuum seal. This platform could be positioned, turned and tihed so that the
sample was viewed at many levels during the test. The electron beam created a 6,000
to 6,500 voh field across a metal filament. This beam scanned the sample at a speed of
1 Hz and while scanning, one CRT showed the actual image produced by the electron
emissions, while a second CRT showed the computer enhanced view that constantly
averaged 8 separate scans and removed "noise" for a clearer image with better
resolution. The images in Figures 5.44 and 5.45 show a comparison at 250 times
magnification of the original Tan layer and the newer Gray layer on Tomb #600.
'/■^.u
ism
A.)3-
Fig. 5.44 Tomb
#600, Tan Stucco
Layer, 250 x
Note the porous
open nature of the
matrix.
The 100 micron
scale at the bottom
right provides a size
perspective for the
fines in the matrix.
f?jt*:/-^.^j»>;i^'<
tV^
J54
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 5.45 Tomb U600,
Gray Stucco Layer,
25dx
The paste matrix is
less porous. Expansive
acicular (needle-like)
crystals can just barely
be seen in some of the
pores.
The more porous nature of the Tan layer can be seen clearly. In several of the pores of
the Gray layer, it is possible to see the expansive needle-like cement crystals developed
during hydration. Figure 5.46 shows a different section of the Gray layer with a quartz
crystal on the left and a larger pore filled with the acicular (needle-like) crystals fi-om
the cement on the right. Small micro-cracks can be seen. Figure 5.47 shows the same
pore at 1000 times magnification.
755
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Fig. 5.46 Tomb
#600, Gray Stucco
Layer, 250 x
A crystal of quartz
(a) on the left and an
open pore with
cement acicular
crystals (b) on the
right.
Fig. 5.47 Tomb #600.
Gray Stucco Layer,
lodox
The same open pore at
higher magnification.
156
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
The next series of SEM images focuses on the interface between the Dark Tan and
Gray layers of Tomb #200. In the first image at 100 times magnification, micro-
cracking at several places along the bond can be seen. The earlier Dark Tan layer is at
the top of the image and the newer gray layer is at the bottom. Close to the interface
between the two materials, a pore in the Tan layer shows re-crystallized calcite. This
can occur if the tan layer is kept wet near its surface by the Gray layer. When wet, the
calcite fi"om smaller pores slowly goes into solution and moves towards the surface, re-
crystallizing once the water dries out in the larger pore.
Fig. 5.48 Tomb
#200, Interface
between Dark Tan
(top) and Gray
(bottom) Stucco
Layers, lOOx. Note
cracks and air
spaces at the
interface.
157
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
^M
,^ .^ - '^' ''''■"
ZJ^'-* '"^'
K.^; -•" ■. ---"""S
F/g. 5.49 Tomb
#200. Interface
between Dark Tan
(top) and Gray
(bottom) Stucco
Layers, 250x Note
pores with re-
crvstallized calcite.
Fig. 5.50 Tomb
#200.
A highly magnified
view of a pore with
re-crystallized
calcite.
characterized by
soft, rounded
crystals.
JOOOx.
J58
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5,2. 1 5 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
X-Ray Diffraction, or XRD, is a useful analytical tool for composition of crystalline
materials. The wave-lengths of X-rays are similar in length to the distances between
the atoms of a crystalline compound, so the angles of the diffractions of the X-rays can
be used to identify the diffraction patterns of different crystalline materials in a sample.
The Ragaku Geigerflex Diffractometer at LRSM uses copper for radiation with a
known wavelength of 1 .54 A. Graphs are produced that show 20, 2 times the incident
angle for the X-Rays, or the d-spacing, which is the inter-planar spacing in the crystal.
Years of work in XRD have enabled scientists to develop thousands of "pdf s", or
powder diffraction files, for known compounds. These "knowns" can be compared to
the results from the sample, and identification of specific compounds can be made.
Aggregate and fines from the gravimetric analysis are often analyzed in XRD to
identify and characterize the mineralogical phases. Sabbioni, et. al. used XRD to
characterize the aggregate fractions, examine the damaged material found in the mortar
and "identify tracers of natural pozzolans (feldspathoids; leucite, analcite, nepheline;
and pyroxenes; augite and diopside."'"*^ The problem with XRD is that the phases of
interest are usually swamped by an overwhelming presence of calcium carbonate in the
binder, and if the binder is not separated from the aggregate, the results will show an
'*' C. Sabbioni. et al.. "Atmospheric Deterioration of Ancient and Modem Hydraubc Mortars."
Atmospheric Environment 35 (2001):540.
J 59 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
even larger proportion of Si02, because of the prevalence of quartz. With XRD, it is
also difficult to analyze compounds that make up less than 5% of the whole.''*''
Since most samples contain a few major components and many minor ones, the results
from the XRD test can indicate the "possibility" of many exotic compounds and similar
appearing scans can be confusing. (See Appendix B for sample scans.) There are
computer tools to assist in the search for matches, but even with the highly powered
computers, the user must make informed choices on which peaks to analyze and which
"possibles" to delete from the analysis. To identify complex mixtures of compounds in
cements and many treatments, experience in the science of the materials is critical.
Stucco layers were tested during two sessions. In the first session, those selected were
prepared directly from samples of stucco and there was no attempt to reduce the
amount of aggregate. During the second session, those tested were the separated fines
from the 8 stucco materials of interest. This set of samples included 3 controls; a
stucco binder of cured lime putty, one of cured Riverton hydrated hydraulic lime and
one made of 1 : 1 lime putty and Portland cement. These samples were prepared at least
8 years ago, so should have been fiilly cured. '"^^
Elizabeth Coins. "A New Protocol for the Analysis of Historic Cementitious Materials: Interim
Report." International RlLEhl Workshop on Historic Mortars: Characteristics and Tests, Paisley,
Scotland }2"'-14"'May 1999. P. Bartos. ed. (Cachan. France: RILEM Publications. 2000): 74.
''" These samples came from the Building Materials Library, samples in the Architectural
Conservation Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. They were made under the direction of F.G.
Matero.
160 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Each sample was finely ground to a
powder. The XRD analyzes
compounds, not crystal shape, so
breaking the larger crystals was
required. A slurry with acetone was
spread onto the ground portion of a
glass slide. The acetone was driven off
Fi^. 5.51 Sample preparation for XRD.
and the test slide was inserted vertically into the XRD chamber, a Ragaku Geigerflex
Diflfractometer operating with a horizontal scan. The samples were scanned at 2° per
minute in the range of 5° to 60°.
After each scan, the peaks of interest were marked and analyzed by a computer
program that compares thousands of pdf s (powder diffraction files) to the sample scan.
Each compound could have multiple peaks, so "possibles" were chosen that would
match up with all, or a majority, of the peaks that should exist for a given compound.
161
Atialysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
HSPV 09-Oe TAN JP
09-08
l-^rkSp^ff^M^
5. 10. 15. M. 25. 30. 35. m. 45. 50. S. 60
HSPV 09-07 SBEY JP
09-07
rTrf7,-,^,:tv.,'7iHd
:l;fr1^7t^ffrffHsia;
5 10. 15. M. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. SB. H.
zzoasa.HAM
HSPV 1200-OB JP
1200-08
' I'l |i|iti|r^|i|i|^i|i(l^i|>> |i^|i|i|fj |i| I |iJCTifi|i|i|i|i|i|l<i>ip
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40.
50. 55. 60.
Fig. 5.52 The 2 top scans are for Tomb #09. The Tan layer is on the left and the Gray lover is on the
right The bottom scan is for the IfTiite Stucco on Tomb #1200, the early wall vault. The strong peak at
around 27 is the main indicator for SiO:, although several of the smaller peaks also make up the
fingerprint. The peak just before 30 is the main peak for CaCOs. Stucco 1200-08 was primarily CaCOi,
as expected.
Each of the samples was first caHbrated on siHcon dioxide or calcium carbonate, as
compounds that were known to exist in the sample. The process to determine the
remaining components was one of elimination. As each component was chosen as being
part of the scan, the peaks were eliminated and the program reported the remaining portion
of the scan to be identified. While not a quantitative method of analysis, these reported
percentages gave an indication of the ratio of the different components.
J62
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The table below shows the compounds identified for the samples tested, and the
percent of the scan attributed to that compound. Calcium carbonate includes
indications for both calcite and aragonite, two different crystalline forms of CaCOs.
The category "Silicates" includes gismondine (CaAl2Si208-4H20), larnite (Ca2Si04),
ettringite (Ca6Ali2(S04)3(OH)i2 • 26H2O) and andradite (Ca3Fe2(Si04)3, or calcium iron
silicate hydroxide). Samples from the first series of tests are marked with "++" for
major components, and "+" for a small component.
Table 7
XRD Results of Stucco Samples
Sample
Quartz
CaCOa
Silicates
CaO, CaOH
200-03, White
+
-H-
200-01, Gray
++
-H-
09-08, Tan
42%
45.3%
2
4%
09-07, Gray
56%
30%
5
600-02, Tan
31%
64.5%
600-05, Gray
51%
33%
4%
1200-01, White
4%
93%
Lime Putty Control
6
49%
3
36%
Hydraulic Lime
79%
13%
ILime; IPortland
29%
32.2%
32.2%
During the first test run of sample 09-07, Gray, ettringite was detected. It was not
detected in the second scan of the fines. It was concluded that since ettringite is a
damage resuh, generally occurring in cements exposed to moisture driven sulfate
163
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
damage, the ettringite most likely was attached to larger particles of binder and
aggregate that were sieved out of the second sample. In the first test, samples of the
stucco matrix and aggregate were finely ground, leaving the ettringite in the powder
form used for XRD analysis.
In the sample chart above, the two samples fi-om the White stucco group, 200-03 and
1200-01 are primarily calcium carbonate with a small fraction of quartz. The 09-08,
Tan contains silicates and calcium oxide, good indicators that this stucco layer may
contain hydraulic lime. The hydraulic lime control contains lamite (Ca2Si04), a
dicalcium silicate expected to be found in hydraulic lime, but not in cement. The
ettringite in 09-07 and the calcium silicate (CasSiOs) found in the 1 -Lime: 1 -PC control
are tricalcium silicates expected to be found in cement. The Gray layer for Tomb #600
did not show cement components, however, they may have been smaller than 5%.
Only 88% of the peaks were accounted for in the analysis, so the remaining mixture
could have been multiple C3S components, each less than 5%. The small amounts of
unresolved peaks in each of the samples are those that would contain the small
impurities of iron, and other colorful minerals that cause the binders to differ fi-om each
other in color
164 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
5.2.16 Thermal Gravimetry, Differential Thermal Analysis
Since the use of thermal analysis is so prevalent in the study of cement chemistry, there
are good reasons to exploit this tool for the study of lime and hydraulic lime mortars.
TGA/DTA can be used to examine crystalline transitions (endothermic and
exothermic) and thermal transformations, such as dehydration, dehydroxylation,
oxidation and decomposition. However, there are no existing standards for historic
materials at this time. Paama, et. al. concluded: "The interpretation of the thermal
decomposition of mortars is generally difficult because of a great variety of
components used, which depends on country, source of binding and inert materials and
on the age of buildings."'"*^ Charola and Henriques said: "it is clear that the
identification of the hydraulic phases formed, ... is very difficuU. This can be
attributed to the variability of composition of pozzolanic materials, the conditions of
the pozzolans-lime-water reaction than the rapid loss of water during the setting of the
mortar resulting in very small sized reaction products. This compounds the already
difficult characterization given their low concentration in lime mortar."''*^
The group that has recently published the most research of historic materials utilizing
thermal analysis is led by Moropoulou, and each article includes contributing
Lilli Paama. et al.. "Thermal and Infrared Spectroscopic Characterization of Historical Mortars."
Thermochimica Acta 320 (199%): 127.
'"^ A. Elena Charola and Fernando M.A. Henriques. "Hydrauhcity in Lime Mortars Revisited.""
International RILEAf Workshop on Historic Mortars: Characteristics and Tests, Paisley, Scotland 12"'-
14"' May 1999. (Cachan, France: RILEM Publications, 2000): 101.
165 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
researchers from a wide variety of European research institutes. In their article on the
characterization of ancient mortars, they describe key identification peaks that separate
lime from hydraulic lime from cement mortars and state: "Generally, the CO2 bound to
carbonates and the water bound to hydraulic components (in weight loss %) discern
two groups of mortars, the typical lime and the hydraulic, respectively."
Thermal analysis run in the TGA, Thermal Gravimetric Analysis mode measures the
weight loss of the sample as the temperature is raised at a consistent rate per time. In
rare cases, there can be a weight gain, as in the example of heating the sample in an
oxygen atmosphere. A weight loss (gain) curve is plotted as weight over time. An
abrupt change in the slope indicates a phase change.
This same unit at LSRM also analyzes samples in the DTA, Differential Thermal
Analysis mode, where the sample cup and an identical reference cup have small
thermocouples attached. During the test, the temperature by voltage difference is
measured. If there were no differences, the line would be flat. Peaks above the line
indicate an exothermic phase change and peaks that dip below the line show an
endothermic change. The area of the portion of the curve that deviates from the flat
line can be calculated for a quantitative method to analyze the component.
'""^ A. Moropoulou et. al. "Characterization of Ancient. Byzantine and Later Historic Mortars by
Thermal and X-Ray Dif&acUon Techniques."" Thermochimica Acta 269/270 (1995): 781.
166 Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The fines fi"om 4 samples representing the Tan and Gray layers of Tombs # 9 and 600
and 3 controls (stucco with binders of hydrated lime, lime putty and 1 lime to 1
Portland cement) were finely ground and 1 5 mg were used for each test. The tests
were run in an argon atmosphere at 20°C per minute to 1000°C. The resultant curves
do not match the findings of Moropoulou, et. al., even for the one sample that was run
in air to attempt to match their conditions. However, the results of the samples are
informative when compared to the control samples.
Sample 1 lime putty/3 sand(S24) TPA-nTA
Size: 13 5785 rig ' '-^" LJ ' "
Method SotolOOO
Comment 20o/nin to IOOO0C in Ar
\ 10-
File: D:\TA\SDT\DATA\042602 0)
Operator ARM
Run Date: 26-Apr-02 11 04
805 le'C \— (-
62 98X
400 600
Temperature (*C)
800 1000
Universal VI 106 TA Instri^ents
Fig. 5.53 The lime putty control sample.
The Moropoulou, et. al. work indicated that in a lime based mortar, no strong reaction
should be expected except the release of chemically bound water around 800°C, and
767
Atialvsis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
that the release of bound clays in hydraulic lime and cement would take place around
200-250°C. All samples in this research showed the gradual release of absorbed water
before reaching 100°C and showed the release of bound water in the calcium carbonate
between 720 and 760°C. The lime putty control experienced a strong exothermic
reaction around 400°C, a reaction McGhie identified as an indication of CaCOs in the
sample. The hydraulic lime also showed slight indication of a reaction before 400°C
and the 1 lime to 1 Portland cement experienced a strong reaction in the same region.
Sample lRhH/3S23 fines
Size 10 42]< ng
Method 2oto1000
Comment 20o/min to lOOOoC in ^^
100
TRA-DTA ''''* D \TA\S0T\DATA\042602 02
I un U I n Operator ARM
Run Date 26-Apr-02 1339
Fig. 5.54 The Riverton hydrated hydraulic lime control.
168
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Sample 09-08 or 1 g fines
Size 1? 3607 mg
Method SotolOOO
Comment 20o/min to lOOOoC in Ar
1 10-1
TRA-DTA '^''' D \TA\SDT\DATA\0<2402
un VJ I rv Operator ARM
Hun Date 24-Apr-02 16 06
769 39°C 74 45X
Fig. 5.55 Sample 09-08, from the original Tan layer. This cun'e is similar to the
hydraulic lime curve.
When the Tan layers of Tomb #09 and 600 were compared to the controls, they both
experienced exothermic reactions around 840°C, an area in which none of the controls
had reactions. They both experienced only the slightest reaction around 370°C and
appear most like the curves seen for the hydraulic lime control. The graph for the Gray
layer sample for Tomb 09 is inconclusive, as it showed no strong peaks of reaction to
indicate that it was a cement or a hydraulic lime. The sample of 600-Gray released a
large quantity of bound water at 90°C, probably indicating a hydrated compound, such
as one of the hydrated silicates. An acid digested sample of 600-Gray had been tested
169
Atialvsis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
earlier and the curve showed the same release, without any CaCOs reactions around
400 or SOOT, since the CaCOs would have all been removed.
Sample 600-01 Cenent fines
Size: 14 156< mg
Method 2oto1000
Comment 20o/niin to lOOOoC in Ar
105n
TGA-DTA """• 0 \TA\SDT\DATA\042502 01
Operator ARM
Run Date: 25-Apr-02 09 20
400 600
Temperature {°C)
800 1 000
Universal VI lOB TA Instruments
Fig. 5.56 The 600 Gray layer shows an exothermic reaction before 100 °C, which
does not show on the I Lime: 1 Portland control. (See Appendix Bfor all scans.)
Without a stronger library of historic samples and related TGA-DTA curves, it is
difficult to make definitive statements about what can be proven from these graphs.
The most obvious conclusion is that the original Tan layers appear to have hydraulic
components and that the cement layers differed in their mix ratios of cement, lime and
other additives.
170
Atialysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
•amo:* St Loois Stxcco 1600-02
Size 9 ^8<5< «»«
Caa«*r>t 20o/i»l" to 'aOOwC i" »r
^GA J
> Ir : \'*\S0T\0*t»\O31i(W 03
Opfalor ARM
Run DltC 1S-Mar-a3 lb l«
« «J
F/g. 5.57 Digested fines from 600'Gray layer. No CaCO} reactions show around 400 or 760°C.
The release of bound water around 1 00 °C represents the presence of a hydrated compound. The
alpha to beta transition of quartz can be seen around 573° C.
5.2. 17 Laboratory Analysis - Observations and Conclusions
The phased approach of analytical testing conducted for this research has effectively
reduced a very large sample set of 700 composite tomb structures of mortar, stucco and
brick into a manageable number of groups for which we can state several conclusions.
J 71
Analysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The mortar is the weakest material and the material most prone to dissolve. During
sampling, it was difficuh to find samples that did not already show some advanced
level of degradation. Under visual characterization the mortar samples were soft,
fi'agile and easy to break. In the total immersion test the mortar samples absorbed 22%
of their weight in water, and all exhibited some level of dissolution. The samples were
too weak to subject to the WVT, capillary absorption or drying rate tests that were used
for stucco and brick. Gravimetric analysis showed the mortars to have a significantly
higher amount of fines and visually, the reddish fines appeared to be of clay and silt. A
few of the mortar samples (8) did not flilly digest with HCl, and the coating which did
not react to HCL in later testing, warrants further investigation.
In test of the 4 stucco color groups, the order of absorption capability, porosity,
capillary absorptive pull and drying ability generally progressed in the same order as
the aggressiveness of acid digestion. The most heavily lime based group (White) was
the most absorptive and most easily digested, and the cement based (Gray) group the
least. The exception was in the water vapor transmission results, where the White
group's high absorptive capability actually seemed to slow down its ability to transmit
moisture in the vapor form.
The aggregate in the stucco groups were all well-graded, and the degree of sub-
angularity increased fi^om White to Tan to Dark Tan to Gray, an indication that more
/ 72 Afialysis & Characterization
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
pre-mixed, non-local hydraulic components were added. Both XRD and TGA-DTA
testing also indicated the probable presence of hydraulic lime (natural cement) in the
early stuccos. SEM was useful to provide visual proof of the damage at the interface
between materials and to show the expansive nature of the development of acicular
(needle-like) cement damage product crystals.
Visual characterization of brick samples confirmed that the brick at St. Louis Cemetery
No. 1 is almost exclusively the local hand-made River or Lake brick. Both are soft and
porous with the River brick being the softest, and exhibiting the most dissolution
during the total immersion test. The brick types are both quite absorptive with strong
initial capillary pull, and both exhibit a high capability to transmit moisture. Where the
bricks have been exposed, there is evidence of weathering. However, loss of the outer
layers of brick by weathering, sah or fi-eeze-thaw damage is not the problem at this site.
Tests for salt presence found almost no salt evidence at the brick interface. Instead, the
structural problem exhibited by the brick construction is caused by movement of brick
slipping through areas of mortar loss. Once the original structure moves, the shifts in
load and weight create shear tension, which leads to cracking throughout the structure.
173 Analysis & Characterization
6.0 TOMB DECAY MODELS & SCENARIOS
6.1 Tomb Decay Mechanisms Confirmed
Based on the results from this research, many of the deterioration results seen in the
masonry at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 can be explained by the decay mechanisms
discussed in Chapter 4. The local environment and site conditions provide
considerable quantities of water from driven rain, high levels of ground moisture and
condensation from the high relative humidity. The brick, mortar and stucco materials were
all porous. Based on composition and porosity, they absorbed and de-sorbed moisture at
different rates. Table 8 contains the summary data for all moisture related tests made of
stucco discs and brick cubes, and the Msat average from the total immersion test of the
mortar samples. These results will be referenced in the following discussion.
/ 74 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
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MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
6.1.1 Brick
The most powerful moisture absorber is the brick wall. The River bricks can hold
about 24% of their weight in water through capillary absorption. Their capillary
absorption coefficient, indicators of the capillary, or sucking power, is the highest of all
materials tested at 0.0471 g/cm^ sec" ^ The Lake bricks are also quite capable of
absorbing large quantities of water and averaged 18.2% imbibition capacity with a
capillary absorption coefficient of 0.0341 g/cm^ sec"^. Even if these brick walls were
totally covered in impervious outer coatings, the high ground water in St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1 would be the major source for capillary absorption. Water at the base,
high capillary absorption coefficients and small, variable capillaries in the handmade
bricks set up a condition that allow the brick wall to fully load with water to the
imbibition capacity at numerous times throughout the year.
When tested in an exposed (bare) condition, the River bricks have the lowest critical
moisture content and can easily de-sorb most of the moisture through evaporation to
the dryer air once humidity levels fell. Many have good rates of evaporation until the
last 10% of moisture remains. When tested with a layer of stucco still attached, the
curves became more complicated and evaporation slowed down when about 50% of the
moisture had evaporated. In comparison, the Lake bricks had good rates of
evaporation for the first 55% of moisture before slowing down. With a layer of stucco
1 76 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
still attached, they slowed down sooner, after only about 38% of the moisture was
gone. These results illustrate how the difference in porosity between brick types
affects the basic properties of moisture movement and how easy it is to impede a
material's ability to dry through evaporation, once an outer coating is applied.
In spite of the reduction in evaporation, the traditional practice of coating the bricks
was not the wrong approach, based on the soft nature of the bricks and the high levels
of available moisture. By remaining covered, the bricks remain in a damp condition,
are protected fi-om wind abrasion and thermal cycling, do not cycle through wet and
dry phases and do not experience dissolution and re-crystallization of salts. Since there
is seldom fi-ost in New Orleans, the bricks also do not normally experience damage
fi-om crystallization of the absorbed water. Minimal salt damage had been seen in the
historic materials, and the tested brick solutions showed negligible salt presence.
These factors are key explanations to how well the interior bricks have performed at St.
Louis Cemetery No. 1 when protected.
6.1.2 Mortar
The mortar joints are capable of holding the same moisture content on average as held
by the bricks. The samples tested in this research had an average moisture content at
saturation of over 25%. In all tombs tested, the tomb mortar absorbed greater amounts
1 77 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
and at a greater initial slope than did the stucco layers from the tomb. The mortar was
not strong enough to hold up through the capillary absorption and drying rate tests that
were conducted on the bricks and stucco. However, based on the resuhs of the mortar
analysis, it is not expected that the mortar would have a low critical moisture content
value because of the high proportion of water reactive clays and silt. Since there is no
atmospheric exposure, the mortar plays no role in moving moisture away from the
interior system. Since the mortar is surrounded by wet bricks, it can remain at
imbibition capacity as long as the bricks are wet. The mortar tested was weak, the
aggregate was heavily skewed to the smallest fractions and the fines proportion was
more than double that of any of the stucco groups. The fines appeared to contain a
large proportion of silt and clay. This would not create a problem if the tomb surfaces
were fully protected by a tight, permeable stucco skin to allow the mortar to dry slowly
without any new incursions of external moisture.
The areas of mortar decay can be described by the following mechanism. In the
environment of 100% humidity, any extra moisture that comes into the system soaks
around the mortar in liquid form, and the slightly acidic water sets up dissolving
reactions with the carbonates in the crushed shell and the weaker silicates. The raw
clay particles are very absorbent, holding water between the many plates that defines
the clay structure. The clay expands, creating internal stresses in the mortar paste, and
eventually this stress breaks down the mortar. As the mortar breaks down, the
1 78 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
adhesion to the brick and stucco layers also breaks, creating interior channels for non-
uniform liquid water transport. Open gaps develop between bricks and this loss of
support allows them to slip out of position. Over time, this slippage causes stucco
layers to crack and/or built up internal shear stresses that led to structural damage, such
as comer failures, lost bricks and severe telescoping.
6.1.3 Stucco
There were many bulk stucco mixes used at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1. Five loosely
defined groups based on color and initial total immersion results were used for
characterization in this research. However, in every test, exceptions within the group
stood out, and one major conclusion that can be made is that there were no one or two
accepted stucco mixes used in the building of these tombs. A few remnants existed of
the earliest practice of shell-lime stucco in areas of the wall vauhs and on a few tombs.
Most of the early stucco appears to be the sandy tan colored stucco, the Tan group, and
results from mortar analysis, XRD and TGA indicated that many of these may contain
hydraulic components. The darker, less porous Dark Tan group also showed indications
of mixtures with hydraulic lime (natural cements). The mid-twentieth century additions
of cement layers. Gray group, on top of original materials have not performed well in
terms of overall protection.
/ 79 Tomb Decay Models <S: Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
With the exception of the White group, the stucco materials do not approach the
absorption behavior of the interior bricks and mortar. The most important role of the
stucco layer is to protect the interior materials from exterior sahs and pollutants and to
ensure that no water in liquid form is allowed access through the walls. This research
would suggest that protection of the mortar joints is an even more important objective,
than is protection of the brick, given the high clay content of the mortars.
Based on the results, all but the White group of stucco worked well to resist easy
saturation from a quick rain storm or period of high humidity, holding from 9 to 12.2%
of their weight in moisture. Added surface finish, if in good condition, frirther inhibits
surface wetting of the stucco layer. Although tombs with impermeable finishes have
severely reduced water vapor transmission, the tombs with a permeable lime-based
surface finish had comparable WVT rates.
The White group is capable of holding the most moisture at almost the same levels as
found for brick and mortar. It is also the most willing to give up moisture with a
critical moisture content of only 34% and would be capable of drying quickly. If
moisture capacity and drying ability alone dictated decay, the White group stucco
would be most in balance with the interior brick and mortar. However, it also is the
softest material and breaks easily with internal movement of the brick. Further, it is the
most acid soluble, and is the most readily attacked by acidic rain and pollution.
J 80 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The Tan and Dark Tan groups are more willing to release the moisture, given a dry
sweep of air over the surface. The capillary absorption coefficients are not high
enough for these materials to pull moisture from the brick by capillary action. The
structure will instead dry through the slower diffusion process, with water molecules
leaving the region of many, to move to a region of few, the air-dried layer of stucco.
The critical moisture content is around 50%, meaning half of the water de-sorbs rapidly
and the remaining half needs more energy, such as good air ventilation or heat. These
conditions can be found at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 .
The Gray group absorbs less than the earlier Tan and Dark Tan group, but is very
resistant to drying, with a critical moisture content percent at over 80%. When this
material is layered over a Tan or Dark Tan group stucco, it effectively inhibits the
original layer's ability to dry through evaporation and holds the composite system in a
static damp, lowered strength condition. The water vapor transmission rate is also the
lowest of the stucco groups, which adds to the resistance the cement exhibits to allow
interior moisture to diffuse to the exterior. Several of the stucco discs showed salt
evidence during the absorption and drying cycles and the salt presence tests were most
positive with the samples from the Gray group.
181 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
While it was stated above that it might actually be preferable that the soft interior
bricks are not able to fully dry after each cycle of ground water capillary absorption,
the failure of the rest of the system is not acceptable. The layers of stucco are only 1 to
4 cm thick, and when filled with variable levels of moisture, the forces of gravity,
thermal expansion and hygric expansion all act at different rates depending on the
material composition and the amount of water. Stresses build up in the thin layers,
eventually leading to micro-cracks. Micro-cracks act very effectively as capillary
tubes, pulling in more moisture which sets up greater stress and a fiill crack occurs. The
fill] crack then directs water, pollutants, biological spores and seeds into the interior to
cause unit masonry displacement and the breaking down of materials through the many
processes discussed in Chapter 3, Tomb Decay Mechanisms.
6.2 Tomb Combinations DIustrated
The values in Table 8 are more meaningful when seen in several specific tombs where
all the components interact. The figures in each material will always show the
imbibition capacity, or Msat fi-om the initial total immersion test, and if there appears a
number below, it will be the critical moisture content percent. The data for additional
tomb combinations can be viewed in Appendix C, Summary Data.
182 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Tomb #09 can be used to illustrate both the simple composite system of only one
stucco covering and the complex composite system of multiple stucco layers. Tomb
#09 is a poor condition platform tomb with a first visible date of 1 822. The original
stucco is Tan and the brick is River. In this tomb, the mortar is surprisingly low in
moisture absorption, but is still higher than is the adjacent stucco layer.
Fig. 6.3 Tomb #09, Platform, First Date - 1822. Fig. 6.4 Tan and Gray stucco layers evident.
Before the tomb was repaired with a heavy coat of concrete, the wetting and drying
processes would progress as seen in Figure 6.5. Most of the dampness would enter the
tomb through rising damp as the bricks absorbed 24.5% of their weight. The mortar
also had a high initial slope of water absorption and would be able to fill to its capacity
of 1 1 .36% when surrounded by damp bricks. The stucco, exposed to dry air, would
initiate the drying process and through diffusion, water molecules would slowly move
from areas of higher concentrations to lower concentrations in the dry stucco, and then
out into the exterior dry air. The mortar joint would dry out under most conditions so
183 Tomb Decay Models (fe Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO.
Fig. 6.5 Simple composite system, one stucco Fig. 6. 6 Complex composite system, multiple
layer and surface finish. Tomb #09 data added. stucco layers Tomb #09 data added
that it did not remain in a wet, dissolving state. The bricks would often remain damp
and would not fi-equently cycle between the wet and dry states.
When the layer of concrete was added to the tomb, the moisture movement dynamics
radically changed. The combination of Tan-Gray stucco had an imbibition capacity of
8.49% as opposed to the Msat value of 10.65% for the Tan layer alone. The Gray
layer alone had an imbibition capacity of only 6.25%. If the Gray layer also had a low
critical moisture content, it would be able to drive the drying process and the low
imbibition absorption value could be a positive factor. However, the critical moisture
184 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
content % of 89% means that once the Gray layer lost only 1 1% of its moisture, the
process stopped, leaving the interior materials damp with the weak mortar placed most
at risk. The resultant damage has been observed in many tombs when the damaged
gray cement layers are removed from the earlier brick and stucco beneath.
The difference in hygric expansion between the Gray and Tan layers are generally not
enough to cause the major damage. Instead, the salt damage created by the Gray layer
and the weight of the water held in both layers pulled down by gravity, compounded by
the internal stresses created by the dissolving mortar joints and moving bricks, create
the first micro-cracks. These capillary cracks directed more water in liquid phase into
the interior and creates great non-uniformities in moisture absorption throughout the
composite system, which leads to
much larger cracks.
The strength of the outer concrete is
such that it holds stresses in
compression until they become too
great, and then react through a major
failure. The adhesion of the Gray
layer causes the weakest materials to
break, rather than the Gray layer bond.
Fig. 6.7 Structural crack in ioinh HU9
caused by too much strength in the outer
layer of stucco.
185 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Fig. 6.8 The back of Tomb #600 covered in
cement stucco. The front of the tomb is patched
Note the loss of the cornice with the new cement.
Fig. 6. 9 Complex composite system, multiple
stucco lovers. Tomb #600 data added.
For Tomb #600, no bricks were tested. This tomb has been patched in cement stucco
and the back of the tomb has been completely recovered in cement. A dripping water
faucet adds an uneven source for rising damp. The Tan layer has an imbibition capacity
at 13.44% vs. the composite Tan-Gray layer at 10.93%, and the drying process would slow
down at 33% in the Tan layer alone vs. at 87% in the combination of layers. The Gray
layer will inhibit the drying process of the interior materials.
At the patch boundaries, the cement layer will keep the seam wet, allowing more
movement at the seam caused by recyrstallized calcite, gravity and hygric expansion.
J 86 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
There will also be more dissolution of materials, and more development and
accumulation of expansive calcium silicate salts like ettringite at the Gray layer's edge.
Throughout the site, there were many examples of deterioration around the edges of
cement patches. Since the strongest material transfers stress to the weakest, the
damage was usually found in the weaker historical materials of stucco and brick.
Fig. 6.10 Tomb #558 was originally covered in Tan stucco and has been patched
with Gray (cement). When the Gray layer failed, it cracked at the interface with the
original stucco, forcing new cracks into that layer, and tore off the brick faces
wherever it was directly adhered. In some cases the released stress caused the
pulling out of the entire brick. The missing bricks in the image above were found on
the ground about the tomb with the cement stucco still firmly attached.
18 7 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Fig. 6.11 Decay mechanism at edge of incompatible patch.
6.3 Tomb Decay Scenarios
Based on the Sun'ey, field observations and material analysis results from this research,
coupled with historical information on original construction and cultural practices, a set
of seven scenarios have been developed that highlight the primary decay mechanisms
that have created the current conditions at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1. Each scenario
includes multiple images that show how the combination of material, design, methods
and the environment has created specific conditions. The scenarios were developed to
J 88 Tomb Decay Models & Scetmhos
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
educate and open dialogues with tomb owners, managers and restoration volunteers on
the following:
• How do the decay mechanisms work?
• How have current conditions developed?
• How critical is each of the problems?
• How can the decay mechanisms be arrested, or slowed?
• How should current conditions be stabilized?
• How should restored tombs be maintained?
189 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
6.3. 1 The Well-Maintained Tomb
In the well-maintained tomb, the tomb owners regularly applied lime wash to protect
the stucco skin. When small cracks began to develop, they were noticed during the
frequent attention and were repaired. Eventually, as cracks began to grow larger, the
decision would have been made to repair or re-stucco areas of the tomb. The family
caretakers would notice small changes in the tomb as moisture driven movement and
weathering occurred. These issues would be repaired or stabilized during the regular
maintenance work before real problems threatened the tomb. Highly vulnerable
building elements such as roofs may have
been repaired more often. Roof stucco
repairs over intact original brickwork is a
common condition at the site.
Fig. 6. 12 The stucco skin on Tomb #230
has been well maintained. A modern
finish coats the tomb, but has been
applied over a well-prepared surface
and shows no peeling or flaking. Some
biological growth and higher vegetation
is beginning to take hold and should be
removed before problems start A high
integrity tomb on a marble precinct,
surrounded by a path of grass.
Studio photograph, March 2001.
190 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
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MOnEUNC. OF TOMR DEC A Y AT ST. lOUIS CFMFTFRY NO 1
6.3.2 Neglected Surface Finishes
The appHcation of lime washes served to reduce the surface area of the stucco and thus
reduce initial water absorption, particularly in conditions of falling damp. The surface
finish also provided a smoother surface less inviting to biological growth and was
temporarily biocidal, as well. When surface finishes were allowed to deteriorate,
breaches would develop in the layer, allowing water entry, dirt accumulation and
biological growth. Such breaches became weak points when a later application of
surface finish was made, leading to thick, uneven build-up of poorly attached material
on the stucco surface. Over time, micro-cracks developed in these areas. The micro-
cracks were of a size that enhanced capillary absorption into the interior stucco
material. The micro-cracks expanded to larger
cracks where biological growth took root. With
time, neglected surface finishes resuhed in a dirty
tomb with uneven remnants of finish and
aggressive biological growth and set up the
conditions for further deterioration through
moisture driven cracking mechanisms.
Fig. 6.14 Neglected surface Jiiiislus,
cracks and biological growth evident
Studio photograph, March 2001.
192 Tomb Decay Models & Scetiarios
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6.3.3 Deferred Repairs
All built structures require maintenance. If that maintenance is constantly deferred,
opportunities are missed to fix small problems before they grow into larger damage
and compromise the tomb structure. Cracks allow moisture an uneven access to the
tomb materials. This leads to broken adhesive bonds between stucco, brick and
mortar, all of which can create more cracking and detachment. Once water is directed
through a crack into a mortar joint, dissolution of mortar can take place, loosening the
brick. Typically, damage is first evident at the top of the tomb, where falling damp
has the greatest impact and the bricks have the least weight above to hold them in
place. Movements of brick lead to wall instability and more structural cracking and
the deterioration cycles out of control
until the tomb becomes a ruin.
Fig. 6. 16 Tomb #39, an
example of years of
deferred repairs. Periodic
patching with cement and
modern paint over the
failing structure has
provided no benefit.
194 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
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MODKIING OF TOMR DEC AY AT ST. JOIJJS CEMETERY NO 1
6.3.4 The Unwelcome "Garden"
Section 3.4.3 discusses the cycle of biological growth from simple to complex
organisms which are illustrated in this scenario. The high heat, humidity and rainfall
in New Orleans create a long growing season. A solid stucco skin is the best defense
against the invasion of higher vegetation and the structural damage that plants and root
systems create. Once cracks are allowed to develop, growth and destruction will
begin. Root systems can progress deep into a tomb seeking nutrients from the clay-
lime rich mortar, resulting in broken mortar to brick adhesive bonds and more
disruption of the brick structural wall. When plants are killed with chemicals after
root systems have already burrowed into the masonry, the removal of the dead plant
leaves new channels for water and more biological growth. The chemicals can also be
harmfiil to the masonry elements or add new soluble salts into the groundwater.
Fig. 6.18 Bio-film and moss hci\>e progressed to
high level vegetation. Ferns are growing in the
roof cracks and will soon cause major
destruction. Studio photograph, March 2001.
Fig. 6.19 The stucco has been completely
breached. Mortar has been replaced bv moss.
Studio photograph, March 2001.
196 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MODELING OF TOMR DF CAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
6.3.5 Incompatible Surface Finishes
Incompatible surface finishes fail because of failed adhesion. Adhesion relies on
mechanical means to lock into a porous surface or a chemical attraction between
surface and finish, or on both mechanisms working together. Finish to finish and
finish to substrate incompatibility are due to mismatched mechanical properties, or
poor surface preparation. When either or both of these conditions exist, the bond
between surface and finish, or finish
and older finish, is not great enough
for adhesion and the finish will soon
peel or flake off In the interface,
shear tension is created and the
materials pull apart. Many of the more
elastic modem finishes used on tombs
in the past were not compatible with
the brittle lime washes originally on
the surface. These modem organic
finishes are also less environmentally
stable and have yellowed and failed
due to sunlight and UV degradation. ^'g- <5.-/ Thick layers of peeling modern surface
finishes. Incomplete coverage and excessive
biological growth in all the cracks and openings
Studio photograph, March 2001.
198 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
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MODELING OF TOMR DEC A Y AT ST. I.OJJJS CEMETERY NO. 1
6.3.6 Incompatible Patches & Repairs
In some tombs, rather than stabilize and restore, the worst areas of lost stucco were patched
with modem cement. The moisture movement and strength properties of the patch are
greatly different from the surrounding material. The older stucco is generally more
absorptive and can wet out more, but has a much faster drying rate. At the interface, the
cement patch inhibits the evaporative process of drying, keeping the seam area wetter and
the materials beneath the patch damp. Expansive salts from the damage products of cement
develop at the seam. Also at this point stresses due to expansion, hygric movement and
dissolution transfer to the weaker material, causing the most damage to the historic material.
Removal of bad repairs often causes even greater mechanical damage. The high adhesive
strength of the repair would bond tightly to the wet brick or stucco substrate with
compromised cohesive strength, thus resulting is fiirther destruction of the historic material
as the repair is removed. This creates a situation in which the cement repairs cannot be
considered reversible, repairable or sacrificial because they cannot be removed from the
brick without causing greater damage.
The incompatible repair ultimately
requires total replacement.
^ji. i \' -.-, Fig. 6.23 Cement patch pushed off of original due to
3JaC damaged material and salts.
200 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
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6.3.7 The Cement Straight-Jacket
One solution to failing tombs has been to completely encase them in cement. Water
will still enter the structure through rising damp and any small micro-cracks that
develop, the internal porous materials will still respond to moisture movement and will
try to move, creating stress within the system. The strength of the concrete shell will
hold these stresses in check for some time until they become too great, when the
pressure will be relieved through the development of a structural rupture. These
cracks can be catastrophic to the structure and very hard to repair without dismantling
the wall and resetting the brick. A related solution of the new cement roof has also
damaged many tombs by adding much greater weight loads to the structures than the
tombs were ever designed to carry.
Fig. 6 25 The sides of a cement encased tomb
beginning to break up.
Fig. 6.26 The cement encasing the
oldest action of wall vaults is cracking
and has been poorly patched
202 Tomb Decay Models & Scenarios
MnPFJTNr, OF TOMR nFCA Y 4T MT mmS CEMFTFRY MH i
7.0 Recommendations
7. 1 Recommendations for Further Research
During this research, there were many issues that could not be studied in the Hmited
time period. More environmental information is required to ftilly understand the
changes that occur within any tomb given the weather patterns, materials of
construction, and micro climate including the surrounding precinct material and other
paved areas and soil rheology. In a ftiture research project, it would also be instmctive
to install environmental probes in the ground, on the exterior of a tomb, within the tomb
and within the different structural system components to monitor temperature and humidity
changes over time. That information might lead to better conclusions on the subsidence
of tombs historically and under current conditions.
The construction materials not covered in this research, particularly marble and
metalwork, are very worthy of more research. In addition, a foil study of surface finish
remains would provide a better understanding of the palette of colors seen within the
site throughout its history. There remain technical questions on the type and thickness
of finishes and their resultant impact on stucco performance.
204 Recommendations
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
The database that was created for the Survey contains the "First Visible Date" for many
of the tombs, and it is tempting to use those dates for research into conditions, style and
construction materials. Unfortunately, too many of the dates that are visible are not
believed to be the earliest date, and the date information was not heavily used herein.
Local archival work with the Archdiocese interment records and the WPA survey made
in the 1930s, further informed by local historians and genealogists, could improve the
veracity of the data references.
Another area for archival research is a continuation of the study that Henry Krotzer and
others have made of the diaries and account books of builders and merchants providing
the services and materials for construction in the 1800s. Those accounts may also
contain more information on specific tombs and families to aid in the ongoing tomb
restoration work sparked by the Alley 9-L tombscape restoration project funded by a
grant from Save America 's Treasures.
This research touched on the possibility of stucco porosity analysis by microscopy and
image analysis. With the universe of samples now available from St. Louis Cemetery
No. 1, fiirther research should be considered to compare and contrast available methods and
techniques. With the advances in digitization that have been made in the most recent release
of ESRI Arc View® 8.0, mapping thin-sections for porosity, mineral content and other matrix
205 Recommendations
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
morphology questions might be more easily managed in GIS than in the currently promoted
imaging programs developed for the biological sciences, such as Bioquant.®
The development of robust models for decay of historic resources has been on the top
of the lists for needed research at many of the conferences on conservation and
deterioration of stone, brick and mortar. More research is needed to develop workable
models that are practical and understandable enough that they will be used. Van Balen,
et. al. have worked to develop a Masonry Damage Diagnostic System MDDS decision
tree with a detailed questionnaire and selected test methods to determine the type of
damage and make determinations of the damaging process between. They define 1 1
different processes: frost damaging process, sah crystallization process, environmental
pollution chemical process, surface erosion process, water penetration process,
mechanical damaging process, surface deposition without chemical process,
condensation process, structural damaging process, iron corrosion process and
biological process. The model's complexity and the documentation required, however,
may keep the use of the model low.''*^
Viles, reporting for the group session on mechanisms, modeling and prediction said:
"Our aim in this section is to indicate ways in which we can improve the utility of our
scientific knowledge of damage mechanisms and rates ... by a) overcoming the scale
"* K. Van Balea K. "'Monitoring of Degradation. Selection of Treatment Strategies." In Saving Our
Architectinal Heritage: The Consenation of Historic Stone Structures. Report of the Dahlem Workshop. Berlia
March 3-8. 19%. N.S. Baerand R. Snalilage. eds. (New York: John Wile\' & Sons Ltd.. 1997). 167-179.
206 Recommendations
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
differences between the microscopic damage processes and their manifestation at the
visible scale on buildings and b) using the copious amounts of data produced to
develop predictive models. An overall goal is the use of modeling techniques for
simplifying the range and resolution of data that need to be colleted for any one project.
. . . The goal of modeling damage is to enable prediction. . . . modeling has the potential
to link the microscale with the mesoscale."''*^
7.2 Recommendations for Aboveground Cemetery Guidelines
This research has contributed to the base of knowledge on the brick, mortar and stucco
used to build the tombs of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 . The decay sketches and scenario
schematics bring a considerable amount of technical theory and research into short
form visuals for the education of a larger group of owners, managers and other
interested supporters of the restoration programs at the site. Many of these images will be
provided to the Louisiana Division of Historic Preservation, Office of Cultural
Development and Tourism along with the Phase 2 Project Guidelines for the Preservation
of Above-Ground Cemeteries and it is recommended that they be widely distributed.
'^' H.A. Viles. et al. "Group Report: What is the State of Our Know ledge of the mechanisms of
Deterioration and How Good are our Estimates of Rates of Deterioration?" Saving Our Architectural
Heritage: The Consen'otion of Historic Stone Structures, Report of the Dahlem Workshop. BerUn. March 3-8,
1996. N.S. Baer and R Snethlage, eds. (New York: John WUey & Sons Ltd. 1997). 108-109.
207 Recommendations
MODEJJNG OF TOMR DEC AY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
8.0 Conclusions
The true root cause for the deterioration results seen at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 is a
lack of cyclical maintenance and timely periodic repair. The weathering and ageing of
porous building materials is to be expected. The surface finishes and stucco layers
were applied as sacrificial finishes to protect the interior structural elements.
Webster's unabridged dictionary defines sacrificial as "relating to sacrifice, the
destruction or surrender of something for the sake of something else; giving up of some
desirable thing in behalf of a higher object." In building materials, sacrificial implies
impermanence, and the original intent was that the sacrificial finishes, both stucco and
lime washes, would be replaced more fi^equently that the structural body when their
effectiveness became reduced.
Periodic sealing of small cracks in stucco fi"om the White, Tan and Dark Tan groups
would have kept these finishes effective for many decades, possibly longer. Since the
stucco was not repaired, or was repaired or encased with incompatible materials, the
different responses to moisture have made each material respond and move differently.
Movement has occurred to relieve mechanical stresses buih up through material
expansion and deformation or through chemical processes, both driven primarily by the
movement, or lack of movement, of moisture through the composite system. In all
cases, this has led to escalating damage, whether visible or remaining hidden for years.
208 Conclusions
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Water cannot be removed from the environment at St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 Once
tombs are stabilized and structural issues are repaired, plans are to grout, repoint and
stucco restored tombs with mixes based on compatible materials with good
performance characteristics for the environment, such as hydraulic lime. This research
indicates that many of the original stucco layers contain hydraulic components for
greater protection in such a damp environment, and that the weak mortar joints did not,
but perhaps should have. The current use of hydraulic lime as the restoration mortar
and stucco should ensure better stability to the dissolving actions of water on the
mortar and should be comparable to stucco used in the past in terms of its compatibility
with the soft interior brick.
209 Conclusions
MOnFUNG OF TOMR DEC A Y AT ST. JOIJIS CEMETERY NO. 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
^ New Orleans History and Cemeteries
Bergman, Edward F. Woodlawn Remembers; Cemetery of American History. Utica,
NY: North Country Books, 1988.
Boyer, Christine M. 77?^ City of Collective Memory: Its Historical Imagery and
Architectural Entertainments. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1996.
Bremer, Fredrika. The Homes of the New World; Impressions of America, trans. Mary
Howett, 214. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1854.
Brock, Eric J. Images of America: New Orleans Cemeteries. Charleston, SC: Arcadia
Press, 1999.
Cable, Mary. Lost New Orleans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980.
Carey, Joseph S. Saint Louis Cemetery Number One, Souvenir Booklet. New Orleans:
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MOnFUNGOFTOMBDECAYATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
APPENDICES
Appendix A GIS Analysis of Conditions.
Appendix B Sampling Record
Appendix C Experimental Data
Appendix D Summary Results
.228
.235
.267
.293
227 Appendices
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Appendix A
GIS Maps of Conditions
228 Appendix A - GIS Analysis
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MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Appendix B
Sampling Record
236 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
mm \\\
Simple Parapet
Tan/Gray
Sample \ 0002-01 | 17-Nov-01
Type
Cond
Stucco with Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Grav
_M_
M^
n.
Cornice altered - stuccoed over
Tan-Gr, Cement layer, Samples have
distinct layers,
#1 2 \ 1st Date] 192T
Da Ibern i/C la vIn/Pecora
Cornice altered - stuccoed over
Tan layer under cement, finish peels
off.
'■\ ^ list Date \ 1958"
Marant/Gallard/LaFluer
Cornice altered - stuccoed over
WhiteGray stucco,
No Comment
Simple Parapet
Tan/Gray
Sample \ 0002-03 17-Nov-01
Type
Cond
Mortar
PriSt \ Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Grav
M_
D
M.
Cornice altered - stuccoed over
#1 9 \ 1st Date \ 18^
Material integrity questionable, but
more than 75% of material is original,
should restore this one Eariier layer
was limewashed, Big cracks, not
telescoping, stucco brittle, not flexible.
23 7 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO
deLaronde
Material integrity questionable, but
more than 75% of material is original,
should restore this one Eariier layer
was limewashed, Big cracks, not
telescoping, stucco brittle, not flexible.
Material integrity questionable, but
more than 75% of material is original,
should restore this one. Eariier layer
was limewashed, Big cracks, not
telescoping, stucco brittle, not flexible.
Material integrity questionable, but
more than 75% of material is original,
should restore this one Eariier layer
was limewashed. Big cracks, not
telescoping, stucco brittle, not flexible.
238 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
No stucco on roof. We should
restore this one Telescoping v
evident on right side Originally built
as 2 vaults with Parapet like the add-
ons were becoming. Transitional.
239 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
No Stucco on roof. We should
restore this one. Telescoping v.
evident on right side. Originally built
as 2 vaults with Parapet like the add-
ons were becoming. Transitional.
Cement stucco, SF under the cement
layer
Unusual/non traditional cornice on
roofline: possible alteration
Gray,
No stucco on roof, 2-coat stucco
work, but original, very coarse. Some
telescoping, map cracking at parapet
Tan,
No stucco on roof, 2-coat stucco
work, but original, very coarse. Some
telescoping, map cracking at parapet
No stucco on roof, 2-coat stucco
work, but original, very coarse, Some
telescoping, map cracking at parapet
Large sample, more on brick if needed
No stucco on roof
2-/0 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
New stucco on roof. May have begun
as a step tomb, with added story and
parapet
Red evident, blue color visible/parapet
almost completely gone. Was
limewashed right on old brick, stucco
added later. Mix of brick sizes.
Red evident, blue color visible/parapet
almost completely gone Was
limewashed right on old brick, stucco
added later. Mix of brick sizes.
Red evident, blue color visible/parapet
almost completely gone. Was
limewashed right on old brick, stucco
added later Mix of brick sizes
iDk Tan
Red evident, blue color visible/parapet
almost completely gone. Was
limevrashed right on old brick, stucco
added later. Mix of brick sizes.
ake sample from Brick
Catastrophic structural failure: no
fomi to adhere to. Date must be much
eariier, 2x4x8.5 hand molded river
brick.
Not local?? Very hard
241 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Simple Step | Tan
Sample 0092-03 | 27-Dec-01
Type
Mortar
Cond.
PriSl
Roof
Stucco
1 0
0
0
Moisture Abs \ \ Ml T | Grav
S D W
Catastrophic structural failure: no
form to adhere to. Date must be much
earlier, 2x4x8.5 hand molded river
brick.
All original 2-coat stucco work, overall
map cracking and some rising damp
from neightwring precinct. Has slate
roof cover.
rr H
Moisture. 4bs \\ MIT \ Grav
M D 0
All original 2-coat stucco wori<, overall
map cracking and some rising damp
from neighboring precinct. Has slate
roof cover.
All original 2-coat stucco wori<, overall
map cracking and some rising damp
from neighboring precinct. Has slate
roof cover.
Dk Tan, Take sample from Brick
Adhesion still good, even though there
Is some lost mortar where roof has
been lost. Stucco still on brick, even
where mortar washed out.
Thin layer of cement over a painted
surface
Adhesion still good, even though there
is some lost mortar where roof has
been lost Stucco still on brick, even
where mortar washed out.
2-/2 Appetidix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Adhesion still good, even though there
is some lost mortar where roof has
been lost. Stucco still on brick, even
where mortar washed out.
Adhesion still good, even though there
is some lost mortar where roof has
been lost. Stucco still on brick, even
where mortar washed out.
Some loss of formal integrity due to
loss of bricks. Rising Damp study
written on this tomb, 5/2001 See
report.
May be an eariier date on the bottom.
Remaining stucco well bonded, good
weathering, cracking at the top.
May be an eariier date on the bottom.
Remaining stucco well bonded, good
weathering, cracking at the top
May be an eariier date on the bottom.
Remaining stucco well bonded, good
weathering, cracking at the top.
Tan-Gr,
243 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
ff\ 1^ \ 1st Date \ ISST
Dreux
Tan/Gray
Sample
29-Mar-02
Type
Cond.
Stucco
PriSt I Roof Stucco
1
Moisture Abs Ml T Grav
0.
n_
_n
May be an earlier date on the bottom.
Remaining stucco well bonded, good
weathering, cracking at the top.
May be an earlier date on the bottom.
Remaining stucco well bonded, good
weathering, cracking at the top.
2.5" handmade bricks on bottom, 2.5
smooth manmade bricks on top.
Stucco with brickdust in the lower
level, Bricks are the same size top
and bottom, but looks added onto.
2.5" handmade bricks on bottom, 2.5
smooth manmade bricks on top.
Stucco with brickdust in the lower
level, Bricks are the same size top
and txittom, but looks added onto.
Stucco with brick dust. Not quite large
enough for MVT.
2.5" handmade bricks on twttom, 2.5
smooth manmade bricks on top.
Stucco vwth brickdust in the lower
level, Bricks are the same size top
and bottom, but looks added onto.
DkTan, Cement Thin Coating
2.5" handmade bricks on bottom, 2.5
smooth manmade bricks on top.
Stucco with brickdust in the lower
level. Bricks are the same size top
and bottom, but looks added onto.
Gray
244 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
245 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
ff\ 226 \ 1st Date] 1806"
Souterre
246 Appendix B Sampling Record
I # I 237 I 1st Date \ 9999
Blank
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
#1 239 \ 1st Date \ 1854
Detachment & bowing of stucco layer
Top of roof partially restuccoed,
cracking at roonop needs attention
Top of roof partially restuccoed,
cracking at rooftop needs attention
24 7 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
No Comment
Tan, Very hard coating of SF,
Very rougti, Large aggregate stucco
with crushed shells High lime mortar
with river brick Testimony to eariy
quality and compatibility of materials.
River brick, early white stucco with
shells
Very rough. Large aggregate stucco
with cmshed shells. High lime mortar
with river brick Testimony to eariy
quality and compatibility of materials
River brick, Eariy stucco with shells
248 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Very rough, Large aggregate stucco
with crushed shells High lime mortar
with river brick. Testimony to early
quality and compatibility of materials.
Very rough, Large aggregate stucco
with crushed shells. High lime mortar
with river brick Testimony to eariy
quality and compatibility of materials.
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Gray
Back and top of Parapet - Lost all
stucco, the rest is good, caveau
frontspiece missing
Blue color evident; probably used to
be a parapet, but parapet is now
missing
Tan, Hard coating under white SF,
No Comment
Tan, Very hard gray coating SF,
Cement with small pebbles used for
patching
Tan,
249 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Tomb layers, Additions.Only 1st level
has finish now.
White cement, Stucco took brick face
off.
1^1 291 \ 1st Date \ 192~
Guma, et al
Simple Parapet
Tan
Sample \ 0291-02 | 21-Mar-02
Type
Cond
Stucco
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture . its A/IT Grav
LL
_M.
n.
No Comment
Front has hard shell finish, sample
from side xfinish
Wall Vault
Sample \ 0275-02 [ 21-Mar-02
Type
Cond
Stucco
Prist I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs A/IT Grav
n.
n.
Tomb layers. Additions, Only 1st level
has finish now.
MVT Size, White-Gray
1st Date 1927
Guma, et al
Simple Parapet
Tan
Sample
0291-01
Type
Cond
Stucco with Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs A/ IT Grav
_M.
n.
n.
No Comment
DkTan, Hard coating SF,
#1 313 list Date \ 1853
RIera, et al
No Comment
DkTan,
Red color evident, Alteration evident,
Re-roofed in cement
DkTan, Small chunk, lower finish
250 Apperjdix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Pediment Tomb
Sample \ 0313-02 | 18-Nov-OI
Type
Stucco with Finisli
Cond. PriSt Roof | Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
M.
n_
n.
Red color evident, Alteration evident,
Re-roofed in cement
Tan, Upper part of tomb, Very thick
stucco,
1st Date \ 1838
Brousseau, et al
Roof wide open, missing bricks in
parapet
Separated tan layer only
#1 334 list Date] ISsT
Brousseau, et al
Roof w/ide open, missing bricks in
parapet
Tan-Gr, Only orig. layer still on brick,
M\ 373 list Date] 192o"
Roof wide open, missing bricks in
parapet
v. small pieces, mostly crushed
25 1 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Orange evident
Sample \ 0373-02 | 30-Dec-01
Type
Stucco
Cond. Prist \ Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs \ \ MIT \ Grav
s D a_
Gray on top of SF from earlier layer
#1 383 list Date \ 1924"
Deangausse
252 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
253 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Blue color evident
Dktan
1st Date: 1848
Trice u/Pitot/Boudreaux
Simple Parapet
Tan
Sample \ 0503-01 | 14-Oct-01
Type
Cond.
Stucco with Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs LVIT Grav
.M_
n LL
No Comment
Tan,
Blue color evident
V. small pieces, mostly crushed
505
Isl Date 9999
Roche
All stucco off of roof - Collapsed,
Comer bricks missing on structure.
Breached vault through roof Blue/grey
color visible on stucco
Sample
Type
Cond
Stucco
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs A/IT Grav
m.
No Comment
_D Q.
Tan
508
1st Date 1853
Montreuil/Crocker
254 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
518
1st Date \ 1887
Sodiedad Cervantes de B.M.
Society
Sample \ 0518-01 | 18-Nov-OI
Type
Stucco with Finish
Cond. PriSi \ Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
^
.n.
n.
Badly cracking, Restored by
Archdiocese.
Marble front probably added, Stucco
loss on roof, walls good
Marble front protsably added, Stucco
loss on roof, walls good.
DkTan, Hard layer coating under loose
#\ S41 \ 1st Date 9999"
Parker
Pediment Tomb
Tan
Sample \ 0541-01 14-Oct-01
Type
Cond
Stucco with Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
M.
H
XI
Large bowing areas.roof lost stucco
DkTan,
255 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Pediment Tomb
Tan
Sample
0544-02 I 18-Nov-OI
Type
Cond
Stucco with Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
M.
u_
u_
stucco missing at roofs edge and
right inner wall, Bowing & delaminated.
White SF over a hard gray coating SF,
#1 548 \ 1st Date \ 182o"
Bofill/Grather
Sample \ 0548-01 I8-N0V-OI
Type
Cond.
Brick with Stucco
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs Ml T Grav
m.
n
Red evident, addition evidence- eariy
tablet and tablet typoology
Pediment Tomb
Sample \ 0544-03 | 01-Jan-02
Type
Cond
Stucco
Prist
Roof
Stucco
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Grav
M.
_n.
u_
Stucco missing at roofs edge and
right inner wall. Bowing & delaminated
Tan, SF removed
#\ 548 \ 1st Date \ 1820"
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
_SL
_M_
Red evident, addition evidence- eariy
tablet and tablet typoology.
Simple Parapet
Tan
Sample \ 0548-03 | I8-N0V-OI
Type
Cond
Mortar
Prist I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs Mi T Grav
_a
n.
M.
Red evident, addition evidence- early
tablet and tablet typoology.
256 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
# I 548 \ist Dale 1820"
Red evident, addition evidence- early
tablet and tablet typoology
Tan, SF all worn off
# I 551 I 1st Date \ 9999"
Vaucresson
Simple Parapet
Sample \ 0551-01 | 14-Oct-01
Type
Cond.
Stucco with Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
_a.
ji
Sloppy paint job
Gray,
U\ 550 \lsiDate\ 1866"
Barry
Simple Platform
Sample
Type
Cond
14-Oct-01
Stucco wfith Finish
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Ahs MIT \ Grav
_M_
M.
n.
Red Evident, Several small open
areas of stucco on left side, cornice
muddied by sloppy repair
DkTan, Modem SF easily peels off,
#\ 552 list Date \ 1804
Dussuau
Red evident, no stucco on roof
Original Tan stucco layer, no SF
25 7 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Reroofed, Girdle of cement, Where it
broke, tool< bricl<, not flexible Mix of
handmade river and early machine
made lake bricks.
3 layers of stucco, 1 st two thick.
# I 558 I I St Date I 9999"
Illegible
Reroofed, Girdle of cement. Where it
broke, took brick, not flexible. Mix of
handmade river and early machine
made lake bricks
Layer #2, Dk Tan
Reroofed, Girdle of cement. Where it
broke, took brick, not flexible Mix of
handmade river and eariy machine
made lake bricks.
Should try to find archival data
i^ I SS8 I 7^ Date \ 9999"
Illegible
Reroofed, Girdle of cement. Where it
broke, took brick, not flexible. Mix of
handmade river and eariy machine
made lake bricks
Tan, 1 St layer of stucco
Reroofed, Girdle of cement. Where it
broke, took brick, not flexible. Mix of
handmade river and eariy machine
made lake bricks.
Poss. River brick. Alley 9L samples.
# I 558 I 1st Date \ 9999"
Illegible
Simple Platform
Tan/Gray
Sample \ 0558-07 01-Jan-02
Type
Cond.
Stucco
Prist I Roof
Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
a.
n_
n.
Reroofed, Girdle of cement. Where it
broke, took brick, not flexible. Mix of
handmade river and eariy machine
made lake bricks
Gray, Top cement layer #3
258 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
#\ 562 \ 1st Date \ 1929
Parapet probably added; cornice
profile crude
Simple Parapet
Sample
Type
Cond.
Stucco with Finish)
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
m.
n^
^
1 St layer of 2 layer tan/tan stucco
564
1st Date
Parapet probably added; cornice
profile crude
DkTan, Layers of SF
565
1st Date 9999
Villavaso
O Q.
Red evident, Many cracksin roof
stucco, left side mostly gone
Tan,
573
\ 1st Date \ 1853
New roof, badly cracking though.,
alley 9L
Tan, Top white SF layer
Cement patching on roof, Possible
addition of upper tier- cracking at
seam, tablet system and scale of
adjacent tombs.
DkTan,
Stucco missing on roof, Flexible
stucco, adhesion good to brick, where
bricks move, see telescoping
259 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
stucco missing on roof, Flexible
stucco, adhesion good to brick, wtiere
bricks move, see telescoping.
Stucco missing on roof, Flexible
stucco, adhesion good to brick, where
bricks move, see telescoping.
DkTan, Big enough for MVT
Cement patching, stucco loss on roof,
failing by splitting into three distinct
bays Wythes not laced together.
Unusual cup-out of top layer of stucco
in back. Sampled
Gray, Cement coating from front of
tomb
Cement patching, stucco loss on roof,
failing by splitting into three distinct
bays. Wythes not laced together.
Unusual cup-out of top layer of stucco
in back. Sampled.
DkTan, Outer layer, back of tomb,
Cement patching, stucco loss on roof,
failing by splitting into three distinct
bays. Wythes not laced together.
Unusual cup-out of top layer of stucco
in back. Sampled.
Tan, Orig. stucco, From front of tomb
260 Appendix B Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
#\ 579 I 1st Date \ 9999"
Atypical tomb; questionable formal
integrity. Inflexible cement, big cracks
261 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Badly racking, Restuccoed w/ cement,
new roof
Tan-Gr,
Coated in cement. Roof totally
exposed, most of left side exposed
Tan-Gr,
Coated in cement. Roof totally
exposed, most of left side exposed.
262 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
#1 600 \ 1st Date \ 1824
Colin, et al
Coated in cement, Roof totally
exposed, most of left side exposed.
Tan layer separated for testing
#\ 601 I 7^ Date \ 9999"
^!?":'"yW
Simple Platform
Tan/Gray
Sample \ 0601-03 ; 01-Jan-02
Type
Cond
Stucco
PriSt I Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs
A/ IT Grav
_M.
n Q.
Top and sides restuccoed in gray
cement
Gray layer only
Coated In cement. Roof totally
exposed, most of left side exposed
Gray layer separated for testing
# I 602 I Jst Date \ 9999"
Blank
I # I 601 I 1st Date \ 9^
Blank
Simple Platform | Tan/Gray
Sample
Type
Cond
0601-02 01-Jan-02
Stucco
PriSt I Roof I Stucco
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Grav
M.
I±
H
Top and sides restuccoed in gray
cement
Tan layer only
#1 612 list Date \ 9999"
Patched in cement, small areas, Very
bad peeling finish
White, Separated to test.
Bad delamination of stucco, SF not
rubt)ery, unusual roof form; looks like
a replacement
Gray,
263 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Tan,
1200
1st Date \ 1813
Treme Alley Right, 8 4-high Vaults
Wall Vault
Sample
Type
Cond.
1200-03e 01-Mar-02
Mortar
PriSi I Roof Stucco
Moisture Ahs MIT Grav
m^
n^
LL
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hlnctiman 5/2001 report.
East section
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
East Section, Gray Cement mostly
1200
1st Date \ 1813
Treme Alley Right, 8 4-high Vaults
White
Sample \ 1200-04m j 01-Mar-02
Type
Cond.
Mortar
Prist I Roof
1
1
Stucco
Moisture Ahs .\/IT Grav
_M_
_n_
n.
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
Mid Section, White
1200
list Date 1813
Treme Alley Right, 8 4-high Vaults
Wall Vault
Sample
Type
Cond
1200-05e ' 01-Mar-02
Brick
Prist I Roof
1
1
Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
M.
M.
n.
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
East Vaults
264 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Sample \ 1200-06m | 01-Mar-02
Type
Cond
Prist
Roof
Moisture Abs
WIT Grav
_a
M_
XI
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
1200
list Date \ 1813
Treme Alley Right, 8 4-high Vaults
Wall Vault
Sample \ 1200-09 | 21-Mar-02
Type
Cond
Mortar
1
PriSt Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
M.
n.
M^
Samples of river brick already at lab
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
East, Tan Mortar
Wall Vault
Sample \ 1200-07e | 21-Mar-02
Type
Stucco
PriSt I Roof I Stucco
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Grav
M^
n.
M.
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
East Section, Probably not original
Wall Vault
Sample \ 1200-08 | 21-Mar-02
Type
Cond
Stucco
Prist I Roof
Stucco
Moisture Abs \\ MIT \ Grav
M.
n
M.
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
Mid section .White Lime Stucco like
259.
Wall Vault
Sample \ 1 200-1 1e | 21-Mar-02
Type
Cond
Mortar
PriSt I Roof Stucco
1
1
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
_a_
n
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
East, White mortar
Wall Vault
White
Sample \ 1200-1 2m 21-Mar-02
Type
Mortar
Cond PriSt \ Roof Stucco
1
Moisture Abs MIT Grav
M.
n^
M.
Samples of river brick already at lab.
See Hannah-Hinchman 5/2001 report.
Mid vaults, White, Lots of shell bits
265 Appendix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Tan/Gray
Saiiif>lL'
Type
Cond.
Stucco with Finish
PruSi
Roof Stucco
Moisture Abs
MIT Grav
M.
H
M.
Some areas are bare, others
restuccoed in cement, unpainted.
Cement on the wall vaults.
266 Appetidix B - Sampling Record
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
Appendix C
Experimental Data
267 Appendix C - Experimental Data
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MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 12 - Final Testing Plan - St. Louis Cemetery No. 1
Stucco H2O Total Immersion, % Porosity
1 19 Stucco Samples, 89 Tombs Tested
Brick H2O Total Immersion, % Porosity, Salt Identification
24 Bricks. 72 Samples (3/brick), 18 Tombs
Mortar H2O Total Immersion, % Porosity
20 Mortar Samples. 1 7 Tombs Tested
None
White
N/A
Capillary Absorpt
Tan DkTan Gray ComboT ComboDk
200-03
259-04
ion. Drying Curves & MVT, 35 Stucco Samples Tested
45-01
548-02/x
579-05
239-02
04-01
89-02/x
291-02
573-03
550-01
508-01
226-03
44-01
551-01
581-01
275-02
200-05
602-02
146-03
600-02/04
9-04/07/08
02-01/05
146-03
120-02
200-01/04
04-01
39-03/04
Stucco Gravimetric/Acid Digestion and Salt Identification, 30 Samples Analyzed
N/A
200-03
259-04
1200M-02
1200M-08
1200E-11
45-01
548-02
13-01
1200-09
89-02
573-03
107-01
44-01
581-01
1300-01
275-02
602-02
600-04/05
9-07/08
14-01/02
39-01/02
200-
01/05
558-
04/5/7
Mortar Gravimetric/Acid Digestion and Salt Identification - 20 Analyzed
Capillary Absorption, Drying Curves & MVT 17 Brick w/ Stucco Samples Tested
R = River Brick, L = Lake Brick
N/A
R: 259-01
R: 259-02
L: 013-01
R: 251-01
L: 548-01
R: 579-03
L: 593-04
R: 045-02
R: 089-04
R: 107-01
L: 573-01
None
R: 009-04
L: 146-01
L: 334-01
L: 120-01
L: 558-01
L: 558-02
Capillary Absorption, Drying Curves & MVT 14 Brick w/o Stucco Samples Tested
R = River Brick, L = Lake Brick
92-02x
R 259-0 Ix
L:013-01x
L: 548-Olx
R: 579-03X
L: 593-04X
R:089-04x
L: 573-Olx
None
R: 009-04X
L: 146-Olx
L: 120-
Olx
R: 558-
03x
Reflected Light Microscopy - Matrix Porosity & Interface Analysis - Thick Sections
I 1200-08 I 548-02 | 89-02 \ | 9-07.08 | 39-01.02
Polarized Light Microscopy - Mineral ID and Thin Section of all layers
1200-08
200-03
45-01
89-05
581-01
9-04. 03
600-04/05
? 74 Appendix C ~ Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 13 - Stucco Water Vapor Transmission Test Data
Calculated Values are Shaded in Green
7-Day WVT
Stucco
Stucco
Surfece
t
G
cm
A
Sample
g/hr*cm*
g/day*m*
Samples
Type
Finish
Time hrs.
WL Change
Thick
Test Ares
Diameter
WVT
WVT
0551-01
Gray
SF
168
0.35
0.692
21.23
22.89
22.05
22.05"
22.05"
20.42"
21.23"
21.23"
22.05"
22.89"
20.42
22.05
22.05
21.23"
22.05
21.23
21.23
22.05
21.23
21.23
22.05
22.05
21.23
22.05
20.42
21.23
20.42
21.23
21.23
22.05
22.05
21.23
22.05
5.2
0.00010
0.00015
0.00044
0.00050
0.00053
0.00057
0.00060
0.00067
0.00013
0.00014
0.00014
0.00015
0.00017
0.00020
0.00025
0.00040
0.00046
0.00047
0.00051
0.00051
0.00051
0.00054
0.00056
0.00060
0.00060
0.00064
0.00069
0.00069
0.00069
0.00071
0.00083
0.00085
0.00106
23.56
36.20
106.25
119.21
126.33
136.44
143.35
160.85
31.10
32.45
32.98
36.28
40.82
49.13
58.96
95.57
110.37
112.08
123.14
121.82
123.09
130.22
133.93
144.47
144.83
153.45
164.42
164.89
165.56
170.39
198.89
203.92
253.96
0002-01
Tan-Gr
SF
168
0.58
2.510
5.4
0548-02
Tan
SF
168
1.64
0.790
5.2
0004-01
DkTan
SF
168
1.84
3.250
5.3
0550-01
DkTan
SF
168
1.95
3.370
5.3
0089-02
DkTan
SF
168
1.95
0.709
5.1
0579-05
Tan
SF
168
2.13
3.630
5.2
0508-01
DkTan
SF
168
2.39
4.030
5.2
0275-02
White Gr
168
0.48
3.030
5.3
0009-04
Tan-Gr
168
0.52
1.397
5.4
0044-01
Gray
168
0.49
3.130
5.2
0009-07
Gray
168
0.56
2.650
5.3
0200-05
Gray
168
0.63
3.070
5.3
0581-01
Gray
168
0.73
1.530
5.2
0600-02
Tan-Gr
168
0.91
1.135
5.3
0120-02
DkTan-Gr
168
1.42
1.035
5.2
0573-03
DkTan
168
1.64
1.187
5.2
0200-03
0259-04
White
168
1.73
0.798
5.3
White
168
1.76
0.907
5.1
0239-02
Tan
168
1.81
4.270
5.2
0291-02
DkTan
168
1.90
4.090
5.3
0039-04
Gray
168
2.01
2.320
5.3
0089-X
DkTan
168
1.99
4.130
5.2
0602-02
White Gr
168
2.23
3.620
5.3
0200-01
DkTan-Gr
168
2.07
1.030
5.1
0200-04
DkTan
168
2.28
3.190
5.2
0146-03
Tan-Gr
168
2.35
3.310
5.1
0548-04X
Tan
168
2.45
2.780
5.2
0045-01
0002-05
0039-03
Tan
168
2.46
0.902
5.2
White Gr
168
2.63
4.310
5.3
Tan
168
3.07
1,960
5.3
0226-03
DkTan
168
3.03
2.750
5.2
0600-04
Tan
168
3.92
2.670
5.3
2 75 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 14 - Brick Water Vapor Transmission Test Data
Calculated Values are Shaded in Green
1 7-day MVT
A
WVT
WVT
cm.
Sample
Brick Samples
Time iirs.
Wt
Change
Test Area
g/hr*cm2
g/day*m2
Thickness
Sample
0092-02X
Imported
168
1.01
0.70
0.74
0.84
1.51
1.55
1.69
1.37
1.72
1.90
1.84
1.76
2.30
2.27
2.59
2.49
3.25
1.16
1.27
1.40
1.51
1.85
1.67
1.98
1.76
2.50
2.70
3.05
2.33
2.86
2.97
6.00
0.0010
0.0007
0.0007
0.0009
0.0012
0.0014
0.0018
0.0015
0.0019
0.0019
0.0021
0.0018
0.0025
0.0026
0.0026
0.0026
0.0031
0.001 1
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0016
0.0017
0.0017
0.0020
0.0024
0.0027
0.0030
0.0031
0.0032
0.0033
240.48
166.67
176.19
208.70
296.31
340.66
437.37
354.55
445.13
452.38
496.89
420.45
597.40
614.18
616.67
617.56
742.86
254.95
328.67
363.64
390.79
390.96
397.62
402.93
475.29
571.43
642.86
726.19
754.78
772.35
802.05
1.9
Bare Brick
0120-01
Lake
168
6.00
1.9
Brick w/ Stucco
0013^1
Lake
168
6.00
1.9
Brick \nI Stucco
0548-01
Lake
168
5.75
1.9
Bnck w/ Stucco
0334-01
Lake
168
7.28
1.9
Brick w/ Stucco
0089-03
Lake
168
6.50
1.9
Brick w/ Stucco
0579-02
Lake
168
5.52
1.9
Brick w/ Stucco
0573-01
Lake
168
5.52
1.9
Brick w/ Stucco
0558-02
Lake
168
5.52
1.9
Bnck w/ Stucco
0593-02
Lake
168
6.00
1.9
Bnck w/ Stucco
0146-01
Lake
168
5.29
1.8
Bnck w/ Stucco
1200-06X
Lake
168
5.98
1.9
Bare Brick
0573-01 X
Lake
168
5.50
1.9
Bare Brick
0548-01 X
Lake
168
5.28
1.9
Bare Brick
01 20-01 X
Lake
168
6.00
1.9
Bare Brick
01 46-01 X
Lake
168
5.76
1.9
Bare Brick
001 3-01 X
Lake
168
6.25
1.8
Bare Brick
0259-02
River
168
6.50
1.8
Brick w/ Stucco
0259-01
River
168
5.52
1.8
Brick w/ Stucco
0579-03
River
168
5.50
1.9
Brick vil Stucco
0251-01
River
168
5.52
1.8
Brick w/ Stucco
0045-02
River
168
6.76
1.8
Brick '■nl Stucco
0107-01
River
168
6.00
1.9
Bnck '■nI Stucco
0089-04
River
168
7.02
1.8
Bnck w/ Stucco
0009-04
River
168
5.29
1.9
Bnck w/ Stucco
1200-05X
River
168
6.25
2.2
Bare Brick
0579-03X
River
168
6.00
1.8
Bare Brick
0259-01 X
River
168
6.00
4.41
1.9
Bare Brick
0089-04X
River
168
1.8
Bare Brick
0009-04X
River
168
5.29
1.9
Bare Brick
0558-03X
River
168
5.29
1.9
Bare Brick
2 76 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
ARCHITECTURAL CONSERVATION LABORATORY
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
Project/Site: Modeling Decay Mechanisms of Above Ground Tombs at St. Louis
Cemetery No. 1, Thesis - J. Peters, August 2002
Description of Sample
Sample Identification: 02-03M
Type/Location; Bedding Mortar
Surface appearance: Chalky, soft, breaks easy.
Cross section: None prepared
Color: 10YR7/3
Texture; Soft, chalky
Hardness: Very easy (0)
Gross weight: 10.51
Components
Fines:
Color:
Wgt: 1.74 Wgt%: 16.56
Organic matter: None detected
Composition;
Acid Soluble Fraction;
Reaction 0-3, 3=Most
Aggressive
Foam 0-3, 3=Lg Bubbles, long
lasting, 0=Small bubbles, or
minimal foam, short lasting.
Wgt: 2.05
Wgt. %: 19.51
Reaction: 2
Filtrate color:
Light Yellow
Foam size: 3
Composition:
Not analyzed
chemically
Aggregate;
Color;
Wgt; 6.72
Wgt. %: 63.94
Grain shape; Sub-rounded
Mineralogy: Mostly quartz, small bits of brick
Screen size:
% Retained
Comment;
^T~
~V-i ,]
2.36 mm
0.00%
Fully digested
1.18mm
2.19%
Rounded, sub-rounded
600 ^m
20.76%
Rounded, sub-rounded
300 ^m
49.56%
Rounded, sub-rounded
150 ^m
17.25%
Bits of shell, sub-round
75 [im
8.19%
Bits of shell, sub-round
Pan <75 [om
2.05%
Added to fines weight
Mortar type: Regular category (not the "Shell" category)
By Weight - Fines ; Acid Soluble ; Aggregate; -3 5 3 : 10
277 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Gravimetric Analysis of Aggregate after Acid Digestion
Reflected Light, Nikon SMZ-U Microscope, Nikon AFX II A Camera,
Fuji 100 ASA, 35 mm Film, Magnification = 5X
Mostly rounded
aggregate, brick
particles evident.
02-03. Mortar
^J '^^ ' ''^'
I.18mm&600MJn
Fraction 2 & 3
02-03, Mortar
300 urn & 150 ^m
02-03. Mortar
75 ^m & <75 ^un
Mostly rounded
aggregate, brick
particles evident,
black particles.
Fraction 4 & 5
Mostly rounded
aggregate, brick
particles evident,
black particles
Fraction 6 «& 7
2 78 Appendix C - Experimental Data
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I
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 17 - Stucco Capillary Absorption
Example Raw Data, Calculated Values are Shaded in Green
Tan-Gr
Amt Abs.
Mi
Elapsed
Cumulative
Cumulative
Square Root
Sample Time (min)
Time (mIn)
Time (sec)
of Time (sec)
0002-01
0002-01
0002-01
Dry Weight
0
0
0
0.00
26 36
0.00
0.00
4/19/02 8:05
5
5
300
17 32
27.25
0.89
0.08
4/19/02 8:12
7
12
720
26.83
27.44
1.08
0.10
4/19/02 8:19
7
19
1,140
33.76
27.47
1.11
0.10
4/19/02 8:25
6
25
1,500
38.73
27.73
1.37
0.12
4/19/02 8:32
7
32
1,920
43.82
27,74
1.38
0.12
4/19/02 8:38
6
38
2,280
47.75
27.77
1.41
0.12
4/19/02 8:48
10
48
2,880
53.67
27.76
1.40
0,12
4/19/02 8:58
10
58
3,480
58.99
27.82
1.46
0.13
4/19/02 9:08
10
68
4,080
63.87
27 80
1.44
0.13
4/19/02 9:23
15
83
4,980
70.57
27 82
1.46
0.13
4/19/02 9:38
15
98
5,880
76.68
27.81
1.45
0.13
4/19/02 9:53
15
113
6,780
82.34
27 82
1.46
0.13
4/19/02 10:11
18
131
7,860
88.66
27 85
1.49
0.13
4/19/02 10:41
30
161
9,660
98.29
27 85
1.49
0.13
4/19/02 11:11
30
191
1 1 ,460
107.05
27 89
1.53
0.14
4/19/02 12:11
60
251
15,060
122.72
27.92
1.56
0.14
4/19/02 13:11
60
311
18,660
136.60
27.97
1.61
0.14
4/19/02 14:11
60
371
22,260
149.20
27.96
1.60
0.14
4/19/02 20:11
360
731
43,860
209.43
28.13
1.77
0.16
4/20/02 8:11
720
1,451
87,060
295.06
2824
1.88
0.17
4/20/02 20:11
720
2,171
130,260
360.92
28.32
1.96
0.17
4/21/02 8:00
709
2,880
172,800
415.69
28 36
2.00
0.18
4/21/02 21:00
720
3,600
216,000
464.76
28 36
2.00
0.18
4/22/02 8:00
720
4,320
259,200
509.12
28 33
1.97
0.17
4/22/02 20:00
720
5,040
302,400
549.91
2840
2.04
0.18
4/23/02 20:00
1,440
6,480
388,800
623.54
2851
2.15
0.19
4/24/02 20:00
1,440
7,920
475,200
689 35
28.54
2.18
0.19
4/25/02 20:00
1,440
9,360
561,600
749.40
2852
2.16
0.19
4/27/02 8:00
2,160
11,520
691,200
831.38
2852
2.16
0.19
% Moisture Gained in Capillary Absorption
8.19% CpAbsCoeff
0.0028
Fully Saturated
28.52
Imbibation Capacity %
8.19%
Mp, Vp
2.16
Diff between Cap Abs and Total Imm.
0.00%
Water Level
170 00
With Sample
182.00
Water Displaced (ml)
12.00
Vp/Va*100=% Porosity
18.00%
28 J Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 18 - Brick Capillary Absorption
Example Row Data, Calculated Values are Shaded in Green
Color
R-O
R-O
R-T
R-T
R-O
T
Type
River
River
Lake
Lake
River
Lake
Sample
0009-04
0009-04X
0013-01X
0013-01
0045-02
0089-03
Depth (cm)
1.90
2.10
1.80
1.70
1.80
1.90
Width(cm)
3.30
2.80
3.50
3.70
3.50
3.40
Height(cm)
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
Surface Area (cm^) 6.27 5.88 6.30 6.29 6.30 6.46
Volume (cm^) 22.57 21.17 22.68 22.64 22.68 23.26
Density (g/cm^' 1.68 1.66 1.69 2.00 1.56 1.67
4/19/02 11:37
37.87
35.22
38.39
45.26
35.28
38.80
4/19/0211:42
41.44
41,75
44.18
47.70
40.19
43.64
4/19/02 11:47
41.64
41.82
44.25
47.79
40.67
44.34
4/19/02 11:52
41.74
41.84
44.25
47.84
40.84
44.42
4/19/0211:57
41.83
41.85
44.28
47.88
40.93
44.45
4/19/0212:02
41.91
41.87
44.29
47.91
40.99
44.46
4/19/0212:07
41.99
41.87
44.28
47.92
41.01
44.47
4/19/0212:17
42.09
41.87
44.27
47.97
41.07
44.49
4/19/0212:27
42.21
41.90
44.31
48.02
41.10
44.51
4/19/0212:37
42.29
41.89
44.28
48.04
41.09
44.51
4/19/0212:52
42.43
41.92
44.32
48.09
41.13
44.53
4/19/0213:07
42.53
41.93
44.32
48.12
41.14
44.53
4/19/02 13:22
42.61
41.91
44.30
48.14
41.14
44.54
4/19/0213:37
42.71
41.94
44.32
48.17
41.16
44.56
4/19/0214:07
42.84
41.95
44.35
48.24
41.19
44.59
4/19/0214:37
42.96
41.97
44.32
48.27
41.19
44.61
4/19/02 15:37
43.05
41.99
44.32
48.35
41.22
44.61
4/19/0216:37
43.07
42.04
44.32
48.41
41.26
44.66
4/19/0217:37
43.09
42.08
44.35
48.47
41.29
44.70
4/19/02 22:37
43.19
42.28
44.43
48.64
41.40
44.85
4/20/0211:37
43.36
42.60
44.59
48.98
41.66
45.25
4/20/02 23:05
43.46
42.78
44.78
49.26
41.87
45.42
4/21/0211:37
43.57
42.96
44.91
49.44
42.00
45.56
4/21/02 23:05
43.66
43.11
45.05
49.58
42.13
45.66
4/22/0211:00
43.66
43.16
45.09
49.66
42.23
45.73
4/22/02 23:00
43.77
43.26
45.17
49.73
42.32
45.81
4/23/02 23:00
43.87
43.37
45.26
49.77
42.40
45.91
4/24/02 22:30
43.96
43.45
45.35
49.84
42.46
45.97
4/25/02 20:30
44.05
43.56
45.47
49.91
42.59
46.11
4/27/02 8:30
44.13
43.61
45.54
49.92
42.65
46.17
% Moisture Gained in Cap. Abs. 16.53% 23.82% 18.62% 10.30% 20.89% 18.99%
Fully Saturated i 44.34i 43.85 45.78: 50.16! 42.96 46.33
% Moisture Gained in Total Imm. 17.08% 24.50% 19.25% 10.83% 21.77% 19.41%
Mp, Vp 6.47 8.63 7.39 4.90 7.68 7.53
DIffbetw. CapAbsandTotallmm. 0.55% 0.68% 0.63% 0.53% 0.88% 0.41%
Water Level
170.00
170.00
170.00
170.00
170.00
170.00
With Sample
196.00
198.00
199.00
200.00
191 00
^190 00
Va Water Displaced (ml) 26.00 28.00 29.00 30.00 21.00 20.00
VpA/a* 100=% Porosity 24.88% 30.82% 25.48% 16.33% 36.57% 37.65%
282 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 19 - Stucco Drying Curve and Drying Rate Data
Example Raw Data - Calculated Values are Shaded in Green
0009-07,
Gray Layer
Change
Relative
Residual
Relative
Relative
Diff. in
Diff in
Relative
Cum.
n Time
Wtof
Water
Moisture
Water
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Time
Hours
Sample
Content
Content
Content
Content
Content
Lost
Content
Content
Content
Drying Curve
(hrs)
M
(Wt)
(Uyg)
(Y)
(Q%)
(*)
Diff. (AY)
(AY/At)
4(«t>)
(Af/At)
(Y%)
4/30/02 9 00
0 00
000
31 37
2 23
1 00
7 65%
0038
000
0 00
000
0,00
100 00%
4/30/02 9 07
0.12
012
31 28
2.14
096
7 34%
0 037
0 040
0 346
0 002
0,0132
95 96%
4/30/02 9 13
0 22
010
31 25
211
095
724%
0 036
0013
0 135
0001
0 0051
94 62%
4/30/02 9 20
033
012
31 25
211
095
7 24%
0 036
0,000
0000
0 000
0 0000
94 62%
4/30/02 9 29
048
015
31 25
211
095
724%
0 036
0000
0 000
0000
0 0000
94 62%
4/30/02 9 39
065
017
31 22
208
093
7 14%
0 036
0013
0081
0 001
0 0031
93 27%
4/30/02 9 49
0 82
017
31 18
204
0.91
7 00%
0 035
0018
0.108
0001
0 0041
91 48%
4/30/02 9 59
0.98
017
31 12
198
089
6 79%
0 034
0027
0.161
0,001
0 0062
88 79%
4/30/02 10 15
1 25
027
31 05
191
086
6.55%
0 033
0 031
0118
0001
0 0045
85 65%
4/30/02 10 30
1,50
025
30 99
185
0.83
635%
0 032
0 027
0 108
0001
0 0041
82 96%
4/30/02 10 45
1 75
025
30 95
181
081
6 21%
0 031
0018
0072
0,001
0 0027
81 17%
4/30/02 1 1 00
2 00
025
30 89
175
0.78
6,01%
0 030
0 027
0108
0001
00041
78 48%
4/30/02 1 1 30
2 50
0,50
30 79
165
0.74
5.66%
0 028
0 045
0090
0,002
0 0034
73 99%
4/30/02 12 00
300
0.50
30 73
159
0.71
5.46%
0 027
0 027
0 054
0 001
00021
71 30%
4/30/02 13 00
400
1 00
30 58
1.44
0.65
4.94%
0 025
0 067
0067
0 003
00026
64 57%
4/30/02 14 00
5,00
1.00
30 52
1 38
0.62
4,74%
0 024
0 027
0 027
0,001
0 0010
61 88%
4/30/02 15 00
6,00
1 00
30 46
1.32
059
453%
0 023
0 027
0027
0001
00010
59 19%
4/30/02 16 00
7,00
1 00
30 43
1 29
058
443%
0 022
0013
0.013
0001
0 0005
57 85%
4/30/02 17 00
8 00
1 00
30 38
1 24
056
4,26%
0021
0022
0022
0 001
0 0009
55 61%
4/30/02 18 00
9,00
1 00
30 36
1 22
0.55
4 19%
0 021
0 009
0009
0 000
00003
54 71%
4/30/02 20 00
11,00
200
30 32
1 18
0.53
4,05%
0020
0018
0009
0 001
0 0003
52 91%
4/30/02 23 00
14 00
3 00
30 28
1 14
0.51
3 91%
0019
0018
0 006
0001
0 0002
51 12%
5/1/02 8 00
23 00
9 00
30 20
1 06
0.48
3 64%
0018
0 036
0004
0 001
0 0002
47 53%
5/1/02 23 00
38 00
15 00
30 06
0 92
041
3 16%
0016
0063
0 004
0 002
0 0002
41 26%
5/2/02 8 00
47 00
9 00
30 01
29 14
0 87
0 39
299%
0015
0022
0,002
0001
00001
39 01%
Full Dry Weight
Wa
Critical moisture content 'V^
0 034
g/cm^
Total Water Content Recalculat
765%
Cntical moisture content Yj
88 79% %
09-07 Gray Layer Drying Rate
Amount of Moisture Lost per Unit Time vs. Moisture Content
0 400
0 350
? 0150
m
wmmm
Critical moisture content 'Vc
^
Moisture Content {*¥ g/cm^)
283 Appendix C ~ Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Table 20 - Brick Drying Curve and Drying Rate Data
Example Raw Data - Calculated Values are Shaded in Green
0548^1, with Stucco, Lake Brick
Change
Relative
Residual
Relative
Relative
Diff. in
Diff in
Relative
Cum.
in Time
Wtof
Water
Moisture
Water
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Time
Hours
Sample
Content
Content
Content
Content
Content
Lost
Content
Content
Content
Drying Curve (hrs)
At
(Wt)
<UTg)
(Y)
(Q%)
(f)
DilT. (AY)
(AY/At)
^{V)
(AW.Xt)
(Y%)
5/2/02 9 30
0 00
000
38 32
5 37
100
16 30%
0260
0 000
0 000
0 000
0 000
100 00%
5/2/02 9 38
013
013
38 26
5.31
0.99
16 12%
0 257
0.011
0 084
0 003
0 022
98 88%
5/2/02 9 43
022
0 08
38 24
529
0.99
16 05%
0 256
0 004
0 045
0001
0 012
98 51%
5/2/02 9 49
032
010
38 22
527
0 98
15 99%
0 255
0004
0 037
0001
0010
98 14%
5/2/02 9 55
042
010
38 19
524
0 98
15 90%
0 253
0 006
0 056
0.001
0015
97 58%
5/2/02 10 03
0 55
013
38 17
522
0.97
15 84%
0 253
0 004
0 028
0 001
0007
97.21%
5/2/02 10 10
067
0 12
38 13
518
096
15 72%
0 251
0 007
0 064
0002
0017
96 46%
5/2/02 10 20
083
017
38 07
512
095
15 54%
0 248
0011
0 067
0 003
0017
95 34%
5/2/02 10 30
1 00
017
38.02
507
094
15 39%
0245
0 009
0 056
0 002
0 015
9441%
5/2/02 10 45
1 25
0 25
37 96
501
093
15 20%
0 242
0011
0 045
0 003
0012
93 30%
5/2/02 11 06
1 60
0 35
37 88
493
092
14 96%
0238
0 015
0 043
0 004
0011
91 81%
5/2/02 1 1 26
1.93
0 33
37 79
484
0.90
1469%
0234
0.017
0 050
0 004
0 013
90 13%
5/2/02 11 46
2.27
0 33
37 71
476
0.89
14 45%
0 230
0015
0045
0004
0012
88 64%
5/2/02 12 16
2.77
0 50
37 60
465
087
14 11%
0 225
0020
0 041
0 005
0 011
86 59%
5/2/02 12 46
3.27
0 50
37 50
455
085
1381%
0 220
0 019
0037
0005
0010
8473%
5/2/02 13 16
3.77
0 50
37 38
443
0.82
13 44%
0214
0022
0045
0 006
0012
8250%
5/2/02 13 45
4.25
048
37 26
431
080
1308%
0 208
0022
0046
0.006
0.012
80 26%
5/2/02 14 15
4.75
0 50
37.12
417
078
12 66%
0202
0026
0052
0 007
0014
77 65%
5/2/02 14 50
533
0 58
37 00
405
0.75
12 29%
0 196
0 022
0 038
0 006
0 010
7542%
5/2/02 15 30
6 00
0 67
36 86
3.91
0 73
11 87%
0189
0 026
0039
0.007
0 010
72 81%
5/2/02 16 30
700
1 00
36 63
3 68
0 69
11.17%
0 178
0043
0 043
0 011
0011
68 53%
5/2/02 17 30
8.00
1 00
36 42
3 47
0 65
10 53%
0 168
0 039
0 039
0010
0 010
64 62%
5/2/02 18 30
9 00
1 00
36 24
3 29
061
998%
0 159
0034
0034
0 009
0 009
61 27%
5/2/02 21 30
12.00
300
35 64
269
050
8 16%
0 130
0 112
0037
0029
0 010
50 09%
5/3/02 0 30
15.00
300
35 15
220
041
6 68%
0 106
0091
0030
0 024
0 008
4097%
5/3/02 8 00
22.50
750
34 20
1 25
023
3 79%
0 060
0177
0 024
0046
0006
23 28%
5/3/02 21 00
35 50
1300
33 46
051
009
1 55%
0 025
0 138
0011
0 036
0 003
9 50%
5/4/02 8 00
46.50
1100
33 30
035
0 07
1 06%
0017
0 030
0 003
0008
0001
6 52%
5/4/02 22 00
60 50
14 00
33 23
028
005
085%
0 014
0.013
0 001
0003
0 000
5 21%
5/5/02 8 00
7050
1000
33 23
0 28
005
0 85%
0.014
0000
0.000
0000
0 000
5 21%
Crtical moisture content ^^
0 202 g/cm"
Full Dry Weight Wd
32 95
Critical moisture content Y^
77 65% %
548-01 River Brick with Stucco, Drying Rate
Amount of Moisture Lost per Unit Time vs. Moisture Content
0060
0050
0040
0030
0 020
Critical moisture content *fc
0000 ^"
03O0
0200 0150 0100
Moisture Content (f g/cm^)
284 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
XRD Scans
Z20B96.RAW
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55.
60.
Z20895.RAW
285 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
XRD Scans
Z20894 . RAM
HSPV HHHL JP
I" I '•' |^'^■''^''P'^I^^IT^^''''''|'^^^'^'T''''''''|^'^'T'''''''M'''''''''^''^
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60
220693. RAM
HSPV 1200-08 JP
ii'lvi'r
1^ |if>|iMf^|i|'|l|i|>|iMip|i|i|i|i|i|>fffl|i
"nii|'ii| |ii'iM'ii|iiiiifi|i|"i*ii|i|
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. ffi. 60.
286 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
XRD Scans
Si*»,
Z20891.RAN
HSPV 600-02 TAN ^P
?fib
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.
Z20B92.RAW
>|7;^i!,.',.i.,.| I ■'.|'.f,.f,:[i/l)t,.,.| r.M|.iw,T
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.
28 7 Appendix C ~ Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
XRD Scans
Z20889.RAH
5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.
Z20B90.RAN
288 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
TGA-DTA Scans
S.mpU 1 li« pulty/3 s.nd(S24) TPA-nTA
Sue 13 5785 mg ' "J" LJ I f\
Method ZotolOOO
Conment 20o/«ln to lOOOoC in *r
File DATA\SDT\DATAV042602 01
Operator ARM
Run Date 26-Apr-02 n 04
110
400 600 800 1000
Temperjture CC) Uoiversal "Vl . lOB M Inatrusisnti
Sample 1RHH/3S23 fines
Size: 10 4214 ng
Method 2oto1000
Cotnent 20o/r«in to lOOOoC in Ar
100
TPA-DTA '■''• D:\TA\S0T\DATAV042602
^^f^ U I A Operator; ARM
Run Date: 26-Apr-02 13:39
289 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
TGA-DTA Scans
Sample la portland/1 line fine
Size 12 4S77 ng
Method 2oto100a
Comment 20o/iiiin to lOOOoC in A
105
TPA-nTA "''• 0 \TA\SOT\0A7A\a425O2 02
I UM U I A On.r.fn.- ABU
Operator: ARM
Run Date 23-Apr-02 13 39
749,27*C
^\/ 237 31 "C \
>v„,97 66X \
r\
/ ^ 0 05-
f E
/ -
/ \
^^
v574 gg'C /
c 0 00-
•
1 373 69°C
1 94.23*C /
1 /*-fc '^-^ ■'°''^ /
94 lOX
1
% -0 05--
i.
1
1/ ^"^ y
V>-, ^
800.69°c\
80 68X *^ — 1
400 600
Tenpera.ture ("C)
800 1000
Universal ¥1 108 TA InstruKfnts
Sample IwPortland/l lime fines
Size 11 8106 mg
Method 2oto1000
Coiinert 20o/irin to lOOOoC in A
100
TPA-nTA '''le 0 \TA\SDT\OATA\04290a2 02
! U« U I A Operator ARM
Run Date 29-Apr-02 15 28
^ -O 05 - - 1
290 Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
TGA-DTA Scans
Sample 09-08 ong fines
Sue 12 3607 mg
Method. ZstolOOO
Couipent 20o/min to lOOOoC ir «r
TPA-nTA '^'l' 0 \TA\SDT\D*T*\042<02 02
I L>A U \ f\ Operator ARM
Run Date 24-Apr-02 16 06
110
a05 16*C
769 39 'C 7« AbX
Sample
Size
600-04 Orig Stucco
11 4780 ng
TGA-
-DTA
Method
JotolOOO
Conment
20o/»iin to lOOOoC
in Ar
File 0 \TA\SDT\DATA\042402 01
Operator ARM
Run Date 24-Apr-02 09 36
^\ 138.94*C
>v^^ 71X
95
226 la'C^"'^"--^-.,^^
96 62X ^
469 82°C
93 6SX
764 9
2"C
1 0 1-
BO-
SS-
-\
t 0 0-
o
80-
/ 83 05 "C
/ /KJ^° ^*''- 364 74 'C
y \\
f ^
1-01.
75-
\805 I5*C
Wo 3111
70-
• W
400 600
Tenperature (*C)
29 J Appendix C - Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOV IS CEMETERY NO. 1
TGA-DTA Scans
Sampla 09-07 CMi»nt fines TPA— HTA
Size: 14 2557 mg ' ^ '^ ^ ' "
Method 2oto1000
Cociment 20o/«in to lOOOoC in Ar
File 0 \T*\S0T\0ATA\0425O2 03
Operator ARN
Hun Date 25-Apr-02 16 10
99-
\v. ^^-^--^ 290 97''C
^?<Cr ^\^94 SIX
/ '■*^--04^ 438 52*C
/ 378 IS'C^N^Cl^
749 27
•c
Ok
0
05-
- 3
90-
/ 572.66"C^'\^\.
/ 664 32*C\
/ 89 lOX
I/' *~-~,,_^ 362.51*C ^/
\
805
79 C
1 — -^_
•
0
00-
2
85-
r
o
L
3
a
1
0 05-
■ 1
75
)0X
400 600
Temperature (*C)
800 1000
rsal VI 108 TA Instruments
600-01 Cement fines
14 1564 ng
2ato1000
20o/inin to lOOOoC in Ar
TPA-nTA rwt. Q \TA\SDT\DATA\042502 01
I UA U I A Oparator: ARH
Opera
Run Date: 2S-Apr-02 09 20
760 45 'C
100
"\ /^"^
/ ^ 0 05-
- 3
\ / 199 31 "C
•5,
^■<94 78X
^
9b-
/^~^
574 B9"C^ ~C^
c 0 00-
• 2
90-
.jmib'c
o
^ -0 05
- 1
85-
/ ^---_
a
/
^
Ur»v.~„^-V=A^-
•0
80-
'
800 69°C
77 88X
75-
1 . J—
. -
400 600
Terrperature ('C)
800 1 000
-sal VI lOa TA Instruments
292 Appendix C Experimental Data
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
Appendix D
Summary Results
293 Appendix D - Summary Results
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MODELING OF TOMB DECA Y AT ST. LOUIS CEMETER Y NO. 1
INDEX
aboveground burial 10
absorption 62
acid soluble analysis 127
additions 87
adhesion 77, 85
adhesive bond 68, 71
adsorption 63
advanced instrumental analysis 151
aggregate shape 132
alite 42,152
All Saints' Day 2, 18
alterations 26
aluminate 42,61
Archdiocese ... 1, 3, 12, 21, 22, 23, 24, 205
arched 32
Aspdin, Joseph 45
bays 28
BeckeLine 147
belite 42,152
bending point 66
binder 39,40
biochemical deterioration 55
bio-growth process 55
biological growth 79, 196
biological organisms 73
biophysical deterioration 55
bio-receptivity requirements 54
bi-refringence 147
bousillage 33
brick 33, 61, 94, 173, 176
brick characterization 88. 99
brick deterioration 38
brick quality 35
brickwork 29
brickyards, early 34
briquette entre poteaux 35
burial practices 8, 28
Cabildo 9, 10, 22, 35, 212, 221
calcimeter 138
capillary absorption 3,93, 119
capillary absorption coefficient 65, 181
capillary absorption rate calculation... 121
capillary movement 62, 109
carbonates 61
cause-and-effect diagram 26
caveau 28
cement 39, 42, 143
cement encased 83, 84, 202
cement patch 81
cement roof. 87, 202
cement stucco 71
cemetery management 74
chalk lime 43
chemical deterioration 70, 72
chemical incompatibility 60
chemosynthetic 54
clay 73, 178
climate 43
closure tablet 29
coefficient of thermal expansion 38
Collaborative studio 1, 12
complex composite system 183
composite systems 32
compressive strength 37
condensation 59, 63
condition maps 75
conservation 21, 58, 74
constant capillary absorption 120
cornice deterioration 30, 86
corrosion 60, 88
cracking 61, 73, 81, 192
Creole 7
critical moisture content 67, 126, 176
critical water content 64, 66
crystaUine porous materials 61
cultural landscape 58
cyanobacteria 55
cycUng 71
decay mechanisms 4,26
deferred repairs 194
302
Index
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
delamination 71, 80, 96
DePauger, Adrian 8
dePouilly, Jacques Nicolas Bussiere 17
deterioration 28, 60, 69, 76, 174
differential movement 73
differential thermal expansion 74
diffusion 63
disaggregation 96
displacement 72
dissolution 60, 172
drying levels 67
drying process 186
drying rate 3,67,93, 119, 123
earth colored stuccos 15
efflorescence 79
Elysian field 13
eminently hydraulic lime 41
environment 51
environmental probes 94
ettringite 70, 84, 151, 152, 163
evaporative drying process 66
falling damp 192, 194
feebly hydraulic lime 41
ferrite 42
field assessment 91
fire (great historical fires) 9,35
first visible date 11,205
flat roof issues 37, 87
Flint, Timothy 15
flush brick joints 85
gehlenite 42
Geographical Information System
GIS 3,93
geology 51
gravimetric analysis 93,95, 127
gravity 62,81,86, 182
Greenwood Cemetery 17
groundcover 54
guidelines 23
Gwilt, Joseph 43
gypsum 70
hand made bricks 37
Heam, Lafcadio 19
herbicides 196
high relative humidity 63
high vapor pressure 63
hydration products 143
hydraulic contact 69
hydraulic lime ... 39, 40, 44, 143, 169, 209
hydrophilic 61
hygric expansion 182, 185
hygroscopic 4, 65, 71
imbibition capacity 102, 176, 184, 186
imported bricks 37
incompatibilities 46
incompatible patches & repairs 200
incompatible surface finishes 1 98
interface types 69
key 86
King, Grace 19,20
Knickpoint 66
lake bricks 36
Lake Pontchartrain 6
latex paints 77
Latrobe, Benjamin vii, 13, 14, 15, 37, 210,
211,212
lime 39, 40
lime wash 30, 48, 49
load bearing brick 89
local environment 174
maintenance 4, 19,76, 190, 194,208
map cracking 83
Masonry Damage Diagnostic System. 206
masonry deterioration 4
material integrity 78
materials deterioration 76
materials of construction 26
mechanical properties 33
mechanical stress 28, 61
meniscus 62
metalwork 88
micro-cracks 70, 182, 192
mineralogical characterization 1 46
Mississippi River 5, 6, 52, 132
304
Index
MODELING OF TOMB DECAY AT ST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. I
models for decay 33, 206
moderately hydraulic lime 41
Mohs hardness 98
Moisture Absorption by Total Immersion
101
moisture driven decay mechanisms 59
moisture sources 69
moisture transport 60
moisture vapor transmission 3,94
mortar 39,61, 172
mortar analysis 46, 91, 128
mortar joint deterioration 89, 177
moss 55
Moxon, Joseph 43
Mt. Auburn Cemetery 17
Mugnier, George Francois 18
Munsell 97, 128
NTVT 110
National Register 2
natural cements 41, 44
natural contact interface 69
Necropolis cemetery 13
neglected surface finish 192
New Orleans History 5
open porosity 102
optical microscopy 142
organic finishes 198
oxides 61
parapet tomb 12
Particle Atlas 148
patch boundaries 186
patina 56
pediment tomb 12
penetration depth 65
percent porosity 3
PereLachaise 17
Perpetual Care 3, 22, 23
phases 147
photosynthetic 54
physical characterization 96
physical damage process 70
physical incompatibility 60
physical movement 72
plasters 39
platform tomb 11, 12
polar surface 61, 62
polarized light microscopy 146
pollutants 72
porosity 38, 60, 177, 205
porosity by image analysis 205
Portland cement... 39, 42, 45, 46, 47, 135,
136, 160, 167, 168
pozzolans 41, 143,165
presence of salts 139, 173
preservation 22, 58
protonemas 55
rainwater 71
recommendations 204
re-crystallized calcite 157
refi'active index 147
renders 39
restoration 20, 21, 24, 46, 94
RILEM induction tubes 108
rising damp 59,79, 111, 186
river brick 36, 37
roof closure system 31
rural cemetery 13
sacrificial 80, 208
salt decay 70,85
salt presence 139, 173
sampling 93
Samuel Wilson, Jr 21, 22, 34
Save A merica 's Treasures 2, 24, 205
Save Our Cemeteries, Inc 22
Scanning Electron Microscopy
SEM, EDS 3, 184,91, 151
scenarios 1
Secretary of the Interior Standards for
Historic Preservation 23
settlement 87
silicates 61
simple composite system 183
sinking 52, 87
site conditions 174
305
Index
MODELING OF TOMB DECA YATST. LOUIS CEMETERY NO. 1
site description 2
Society for the Preservation of Ancient
Tombs 20
society tombs 18
soil composition 72
soil type 54
sources of moisture 59
spoiling 84
St. Lx)uis Cemetery No. 1 2, 10
St. Louis Cemetery No. 2 17
St. Louis Church 8
St. Peter Cemetery 8, 10
step tombs 11, 12, 13
stone lime 29, 43
structual system 27
structural cracks 83
structural failures 4
stucco 30, 31, 39, 61, 95, 172
stucco covered brick 43
stucco deterioration 95
stucco groups 97
subsidence 53
surface finish 48, 77
surface preparation 78
Survey 1, 3, 12, 24, 75, 76, 78, 79, 94, 108
tabby 33
tablet systems 88
telescoping 81, 179
tensile strength 37
test design 91
testing and analysis 91
TGA/DTA 3,91,165
thermal expansion 182
thermal expansion coeflficients 74
thickness correlation to WVT 1 12
thin-section polarized 110
Thornton, Cyril 16
tiers 28
tomb configuration 28
tomb construction 27
tomb settlement 73
tomb types 11
tombscape conservation 24, 205
tombscapes 18
topography 51, 54
total immersion test, stucco 101
total immersion, brick 106
total immersion, mortar 104
tourism 56, 57
trabeated 32
traffic vibration 56
travel accounts 13, 17
Twain, Mark 17
UV degradation 50
vapor diffusion 63
vertical closure system 31
vibration 56
wall vault 12
water absorption by total immersion 92
water absorption coefficient 102
water penetration coefficient 65
water reactive clays 178
water vapor transmission 95, 111
waterproof finishes 49
weather 53
weathering 208
well-maintained tomb 190
wetting levels 64
Wharton, Thomas K 44
WPA 20, 21, 35, 205
WVT 180
WVT calculation 117
WVT, brick 114
WVT, stucco Ill
X-Ray Diffraction
XRD 3,91, 159
yellow fever 6
306
Index
Anne & Jerome Fisher
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